The role of ILC2 in hookworm infection.

Hookworm is a major public health concern, yet still relatively little is known about the immunological responses involved in human infection. Animal studies are mainly confined to using the natural rodent helminth Nippostrongylus brasiliensis as this has been proposed as the most accurate model of hookworm infection in the mouse, with both its life cycle and the immune responses it invokes having been extremely well characterized. In this review, we examine the roles that type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) play in immunity and host tolerance to hookworm infection, particularly N. brasiliensis. This includes their role in the initiation and regulation of immune responses, as well as in the resolution and limitation of tissue damage required after an infection with a large organism, such as a helminth.

Genetic ablation of carbonic anhydrase IX disrupts gastric barrier function via claudin-18 downregulation and acid backflux.

AIM: This study aimed to explore the molecular mechanisms for the parietal cell loss and fundic hyperplasia observed in gastric mucosa of mice lacking the carbonic anhydrase 9 (CAIX). METHODS: We assessed the ability of CAIX-knockout and WT gastric surface epithelial cells to withstand a luminal acid load by measuring the pHi of exteriorized gastric mucosa in vivo using two-photon confocal laser scanning microscopy. Cytokines and claudin-18A2 expression was analysed by RT-PCR. RESULTS: CAIX-knockout gastric surface epithelial cells showed significantly faster pHi decline after luminal acid load compared to WT. Increased gastric mucosal IL-1ß and iNOS, but decreased claudin-18A2 expression (which confer acid resistance) was observed shortly after weaning, prior to the loss of parietal and chief cells. At birth, neither inflammatory cytokines nor claudin-18 expression were altered between CAIX and WT gastric mucosa. The gradual loss of acid secretory capacity was paralleled by an increase in serum gastrin, IL-11 and foveolar hyperplasia. Mild chronic proton pump inhibition from the time of weaning did not prevent the claudin-18 decrease nor the increase in inflammatory markers at 1 month of age, except for IL-1ß. However, the treatment reduced the parietal cell loss in CAIX-KO mice in the subsequent months. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that CAIX converts protons that either backflux or are extruded from the cells rapidly to CO2 and H2 O, contributing to tight junction protection and gastric epithelial pHi regulation. Lack of CAIX results in persistent acid backflux via claudin-18 downregulation, causing loss of parietal cells, hypergastrinaemia and foveolar hyperplasia.

CO2 permeability and carbonic anhydrase activity of rat cardiomyocytes.

AIM: To determine the CO2 permeability (PCO2 ) of plasma membranes of cardiomyocytes. These cells were chosen because heart possesses the highest rate of O2 consumption/CO2 production in the body. METHODS: Cardiomyocytes were isolated from rat hearts using the Langendorff technique. Cardiomyocyte suspensions exhibited a vitality of 2-14% and were studied by the previously described mass spectrometric 18 O-exchange technique deriving PCO2 . We showed by mass spectrometry and by carbonic anhydrase (CA) staining that non-vital cardiomyocytes are free of CA and thus do not contribute to the mass spectrometric signal, which is determined exclusively by the fully functional vital cardiomyocytes. RESULTS: Lysed cardiomyocytes yielded an intracellular CA activity for vital cells of 5070; that is, the rate of CO2 hydration inside the cell is accelerated 5071-fold. Using this number, analyses of the mass spectrometric recordings from cardiomyocyte suspensions yield a PCO2 of 0.10 cm s-1 (SD ± 0.06, n = 15) at 37 °C. CONCLUSION: In comparison with the PCO2 of other cells, this value is quite high and about identical to that of the human red cell membrane. As no major protein CO2 channels such as aquaporins 1 and 4 are present in rat cardiac sarcolemma, the high PCO2 of this membrane is likely due to its low cholesterol content of about 0.2 (mol cholesterol)·(mol total membrane lipids)-1 . Previous work predicted a PCO2 of ≥0.1 cm s-1 from this level of cholesterol. We conclude that the low cholesterol establishes a PCO2 high enough to render the membrane resistance to CO2 diffusion almost negligible, even under conditions of maximal O2 consumption of the heart.

Staphylococcal-derived superantigen enhances peanut induced Th2 responses in the skin.

BACKGROUND: The allergen-induced activation and expansion of IL-4 producing T helper type 2 (Th2) cells is a key event in the initiation and progression of allergic disease. Intriguingly, concomitant early childhood staphylococcal skin infections are being increasingly implicated in the allergen-induced switch of primary T cell responses towards the Th2 phenotype. OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify whether or not staphylococcal-derived superantigen can influence the primary T cell response in the skin to food allergens with a view to determining whether such exposures create the immune pathology that predisposes to the development of food allergy. METHODS: Using a novel Th2 reporter model, we determined the ability of the staphylococcal superantigen (SEB) to influence priming in the skin of IL-4 expressing Th2 cells by peanut extract (PE). Factors including the effect of SEB on the magnitude of the Th2 response in the skin draining lymph nodes, T cell receptor V region usage and the influence of endotoxin were evaluated. RESULTS: Primary exposure to PE and SEB lead to significantly enhanced PE specific Th2 responses when the mice were subsequently exposed to PE alone. The enhancement of the Th2 response was dependent on the Vß-binding properties of the SEB, but was not affected by endotoxin-mediated TLR-4 effects or strain differences in the mice. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These results identify that in the skin environment, the presence of SEB can significantly increase the numbers of allergen-induced Th2 cells which develop in response to subsequent allergen exposure. These data highlight the process by which individuals may become pathologically sensitized to food allergens in early life.

Epigenetic regulation of Th2 cytokine expression in atopic diseases.

The immune response to allergens starts with stimulation of a naïve T helper (Th) cell and its differentiation into a Th2 cell, expressing the cytokines interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13 responsible for the allergic response. The initial pattern of cytokine expression is retained during restimulation and division of the Th2 cell to create a population of specific allergen-responsive memory Th2 cells. Both, the coordinate cytokine expression and the inherited cytokine memory are specified by epigenetic mechanisms. Th2-specific changes in chromatin configuration at the Th2 locus act locally to open DNA, allowing recruitment of transcriptional machinery and rapid induction of cytokine expression. Induction of the transcription factor GATA3 is critical to this process. Loss of DNA methylation at the Th2 locus during differentiation from a naïve Th cell correlates to increased histone acetylation, consistent with the expression of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13. The silencing of the Th2 locus in Th1 cells was associated with repressive histone methylation. These data indicate the formation of a 'poised' chromatin configuration at the Th2 locus that in combination with specific transcription factors specifies the cytokine repertoire in daughter cells and allows the immediate, rapid induction of cytokines by those cells in response to allergen.

Farm exposure in utero may protect against asthma, hay fever and eczema.

The aim of the present study was to assess which factors contribute to the lower prevalence of allergic diseases in farmers' children, and the importance of timing of exposure. In a cross-sectional questionnaire survey, asthma symptoms, hay fever and eczema were assessed, as well as current, early and prenatal farm-related exposures in 1,333 farmers' children and 566 reference children aged 5-17 yrs. Farmers' children had a lower incidence of asthma symptoms and eczema. Current and maternal exposure during pregnancy to animals and/or grain and hay reduced the risk of asthma symptoms, hay fever and eczema. The exposure-response association for maternal exposure was nonlinear for most outcomes. After mutual adjustment, the effects of prenatal exposure remained unchanged whereas current exposure remained protective only for asthma medication, asthma ever and hay fever. Exposure during the first 2 yrs was not associated with symptoms, after controlling for prenatal exposure. A combination of prenatal and current exposure was most strongly associated with wheeze (odds ratio (OR) 0.48, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.28-0.80), asthma medication (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.30-0.82), asthma ever (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.33-0.76), hay fever (OR 0.47, 95% CI 0.30-0.73) and eczema (OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.30-0.70). Prenatal exposure may contribute to the low prevalence of asthma, hay fever and eczema in farmers' children, but continued exposure may be required to maintain optimal protection.

Lifelong farm exposure may strongly reduce the risk of asthma in adults.

BACKGROUND: Farm exposures may protect against childhood asthma, hay fever and eczema. Whether farm exposures also confer protection in adult farmers remains unclear. Moreover, little is known about the role of timing of exposure. We assessed the effects of current and childhood farm exposures on asthma, hay fever and eczema in farmers and a rural nonfarming control population. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional questionnaire survey in 2509 farming families (response rate 78%) and 1001 nonfarming families (response rate 67%), which included 4288 farmers and 1328 nonfarmers. RESULTS: Farmers were less likely to have asthma symptoms, hay fever and eczema; no significant differences were observed among dairy, sheep and beef, and horticulture farmers. A combination of current and childhood exposure was more strongly associated with shortness of breath (OR 0.50, CL 0.39-0.66), wheeze (OR 0.60, CL 0.49-0.73), asthma medication (OR 0.48, CL 0.37-0.63); and asthma ever (OR 0.56, CL 0.46-0.68) than current exposure alone (OR 0.63, CL 0.47-0.84; OR 0.80, CL 0.65-0.99; OR 0.68, CL 0.51-0.9; OR 0.69, CL 0.56-0.85 respectively) or childhood exposure alone (OR 0.97, CL0.65-1.44; OR 1.01, CL 0.75-1.34; OR 0.78, CL 0.51-1.19; OR 0.87, CL 0.63-1.19 respectively). Moreover, the combined number of years of farm exposure in childhood and adulthood showed a dose-dependent inverse association with symptom prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: Although both current and childhood farm exposures may play a role in the observed low prevalence of asthma symptoms in adult farmers, continued long-term exposure may be required to maintain optimal protection.

Evidence that aquaporin 1 is a major pathway for CO2 transport across the human erythrocyte membrane.

We report here the application of a previously described method to directly determine the CO2 permeability (P(CO2)) of the cell membranes of normal human red blood cells (RBCs) vs. those deficient in aquaporin 1 (AQP1), as well as AQP1-expressing Xenopus laevis oocytes. This method measures the exchange of (18)O between CO2, HCO3(-), and H2O in cell suspensions. In addition, we measure the alkaline surface pH (pH(S)) transients caused by the dominant effect of entry of CO2 vs. HCO3(-) into oocytes exposed to step increases in [CO2]. We report that 1) AQP1 constitutes the major pathway for molecular CO2 in human RBCs; lack of AQP1 reduces P(CO2) from the normal value of 0.15 +/- 0.08 (SD; n=85) cm/s by 60% to 0.06 cm/s. Expression of AQP1 in oocytes increases P(CO2) 2-fold and doubles the alkaline pH(S) gradient. 2) pCMBS, an inhibitor of the AQP1 water channel, reduces P(CO2) of RBCs solely by action on AQP1 as it has no effect in AQP1-deficient RBCs. 3) P(CO2) determinations of RBCs and pH(S) measurements of oocytes indicate that DIDS inhibits the CO2 pathway of AQP1 by half. 4) RBCs have at least one other DIDS-sensitive pathway for CO2. We conclude that AQP1 is responsible for 60% of the high P(CO2) of red cells and that another, so far unidentified, CO2 pathway is present in this membrane that may account for at least 30% of total P(CO2).

Red cell membrane CO2 permeability in normal human blood and in blood deficient in various blood groups, and effect of DIDS.

The red cell membrane has an exceptionally high permeability for CO2, PCO2 approximately 0.15 cm/s, which is two to three orders of magnitude greater than that of some epithelial membranes and similarly greater than the permeability of the red cell membrane for HCO3-. As shown previously, this high PCO2 can be drastically inhibited by 10 microM 4,4'-diisothiocyanato-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonate (DIDS), indicating that membrane proteins may be involved in this high gas permeability. Here, we have studied the possible contribution of several blood group proteins to CO2 permeation across the red cell membrane by comparing PCO2 of red cells deficient in specific blood group proteins with that of normal red cells. While PCO2 of normal red cells is approximately 0.15 cm/s and that of Fy(null) and Jk(null) red cells is similar, PCO2's of Colton null (deficient in aquaporin-1) and Rh(null) cells (deficient in Rh/RhAG) are both reduced to about 0.07 cm/s, i.e. to about one half. In addition, the inhibitory effect of DIDS is about half as great in Rh(null) and in Colton null red cells as it is in normal red cells. We conclude that aquaporin-1 and Rh/RhAG proteins contribute substantially to the high permeability of the human red cell membrane for CO2. Together these proteins are responsible for 50% or more of the CO2 permeability of red cell membranes. The CO2 pathways of both proteins can be partly inhibited by DIDS, which is why this compound very effectively reduces membrane CO2 permeability.

Allergic airway inflammation is exacerbated during acute influenza infection and correlates with increased allergen presentation and recruitment of allergen-specific T-helper type 2 cells.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory viral infections are a leading cause of the hospitalization of asthmatics, however, the cellular immunological interactions which underlie these two diseases remain elusive. OBJECTIVE: We sought to characterize the effect influenza viral infection has on allergic airway inflammation and to identify the cellular pathways involved. METHODS: We have used an ovalbumin (OVA) model of allergic airway inflammation, which involves sensitization of animals with OVA adsorbed in alum adjuvant followed by an intranasal challenge with OVA in phosphate-buffered saline. To study T cell recruitment into the lung, we adoptively transferred in vitro activated T cell receptor-transgenic T cells, which were subsequently identified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis. In addition, to study in vivo dendritic cell (DC) migration, we administered fluorescently labelled dextran and identified DCs that had phagocytosed it by FACS analysis. RESULTS: We found that different stages of influenza infection had contrasting effects upon the outcome of OVA-induced allergic airway inflammation. The allergic response against OVA was exacerbated during the acute stage of influenza infection; however, mice were protected against the development of airway eosinophilia at late time-points following infection. We investigated the mechanisms responsible for the virus-induced exacerbation and found that the response was partially independent of IL-4 and that there was increased delivery of inhaled allergens to the draining lymph node during the acute stage of the infection. In addition, virus-induced inflammation in the lung and draining lymph node resulted in the non-specific recruitment of circulating allergen-specific effector/memory cells. CONCLUSION: In addition to virus-mediated damage to the lung and airways, influenza viral infection can also enhance unrelated local allergic responses.

[Phylogeny of gas exchange systems]. / Phylogenese der Gasaustauschsysteme.

Several systems of gas transport have developed during evolution, all of which are able to sufficiently supply oxygen to the tissues and eliminate the CO2 produced by the metabolism, in spite of great distances between the environment and the individual cells of the tissues. Almost all these systems utilize a combination of convection and diffusion steps. Convection achieves an efficient transport of gas over large distances, but requires energy and cannot occur across tissue barriers. Diffusion, on the other hand, achieves gas transport across barriers, but requires optimization of diffusion paths and diffusion areas. When two convectional gas flows are linked via a diffusional barrier (gas/fluid in the case of the avian lung, fluid/fluid in the case of gills), the directions in which the respective convectional movements pass each other are important determinants of gas exchange efficiency (concurrent, countercurrent and cross-current systems). The tracheal respiration found in insects has the advantage of circumventing the convective gas transport step in the blood, thereby avoiding the high energy expenditure of circulatory systems. This is made possible by a system of tracheae, ending in tracheoles, that reaches from the body surface to every cell within the body. The last step of gas transfer in these animals occurs by diffusion from the tracheoles ("air capillaries") to the mitochondria of cells. The disadvantage is that the tracheal system occupies a substantial fraction of body volume and that, due to limited mechanical stability of tracheal walls, this system would not be able to operate under conditions of high hydrostatic pressures, i. e. in large animals. Respiration in an "open" system, i. e. direct exposure of the diffusional barrier to the environmental air, eliminates the problem of bringing the oxygen to the barrier by convection, as is necessary in the avian and mammalian lung, in the insects' tracheal system and in the gills. An open system is found in the respiration via the skin, which is of significance in some amphibians, but is limited by the thickness of the skin that constitutes a substantial diffusion path for O2 and CO2. The thick skin, on the other hand, provides mechanical protection as well as flexibility for the animals' body and helps avoid massive water loss via the body surface. The gills of fishes, in contrast, exhibit rather short diffusion distances, are located in a mechanically protected space, and the problem of water loss does not exist. The flows of blood and water occur in opposite direction (countercurrent flow) and this situation makes an arterial PO2 approaching the environmental PO2 possible. A major disadvantage is constituted by the environmental medium since water contains little O2 compared to air and, to compensate this, much energy is expended to maintain a high flow rate of water through the gills. In the mammalian lung ("pool system"), the presence of a dead space and the rhythmic ventilation that replaces only a small fraction of the gas volume of the lung per breath, are responsible for an arterial PO2 (2/3 of the atmospheric PO2) that cannot reach the expiratory PO2. However, an advantage of this feature is the constantly high alveolar and arterial PCO2, which provides a highly effective H(+) buffer system in the entire body. The apparent disadvantage of the mammalian lung is avoided by the avian lung, which uses an extended system of airways to establish continuous equilibration of a part of the capillary blood with fresh air (cross current system), during inspiration as well as during expiration. In this system, arterial PO2 can significantly exceed expiratory PO2. A disadvantage here is the enormous amount of space taken up by the avian lung, in animals of 1 kg body weight three times as much as taken up by the mammalian lung. All respiratory exchange systems considered here exhibit high degrees of optimization - yet follow highly diverse construction principles. There is no such thing as an ideal gas exchange system. The system that has evolved in each species depends to an impressive extent on environmental conditions, on body build and size, on the animal's patterns of movement and on its energy consumption.

Calcineurin regulates slow myosin, but not fast myosin or metabolic enzymes, during fast-to-slow transformation in rabbit skeletal muscle cell culture.

The addition of cyclosporin A (500 ng ml(-1)) - an inhibitor of the Ca2+-calmodulin-regulated serine/threonine phosphatase calcineurin - to primary cultures of rabbit skeletal muscle cells had no influence on the expression of fast myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms MHCIIa and MHCIId at the level of protein and mRNA, but reduced the expression of slow MHCI mRNA. In addition, no influence of cyclosporin A on the expression of citrate synthase (CS) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) mRNA was found. The level of enzyme activity of CS was also not affected. When the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 (4 x 10(-7) M) was added to the medium, a partial fast-to-slow transformation occurred. The level of MHCI mRNA increased, and the level of MHCIId mRNA decreased. Cotreatment with cyclosporin A was able to prevent the upregulation of MHCI at the level of mRNA as well as protein, but did not reverse the decrease in MHCIId expression. The expression of MHCIIa was also not influenced by cyclosporin A. Cyclosporin A was not able to prevent the upregulation of CS mRNA under Ca2+ ionophore treatment and failed to reduce the increased enzyme activity of CS. The expression of GAPDH mRNA was reduced under Ca2+ ionophore treatment and was not altered under cotreatment with cyclosporin A. When the myotubes in the primary muscle culture were electrostimulated at 1 Hz for 15 min periods followed by pauses of 30 min, a partial fast-to-slow transformation was induced. Again, cotreatment with cyclosporin A prevented the upregulation of MHCI at the level of mRNA and protein without affecting MHCIId expression. The nuclear translocation of the calcineurin-regulated transcription factor nuclear factor of activated thymocytes (NFATc1) during treatment with Ca2+ ionophore, and the prevention of the translocation in the presence of cyclosporin A, were demonstrated immunocytochemically in the myotubes of the primary culture. The effects of cyclosporin A demonstrate the involvement of calcineurin-dependent signalling pathways in controlling the expression of MHCI, but not of MHCIIa, MHCIId, CS and GAPDH, during Ca2+ ionophore- and electrostimulation-induced fast-to-slow transformations. The data indicate a differential regulation of MHCI, of MHCII and of metabolism. Calcineurin alone is not sufficient to mediate the complete transformation.

The effect of delipidated deglycolipidated (DDMV) and heat-killed Mycobacterium vaccae in asthma.

Experimental and epidemiological evidence supports the hypothesis that exposure to mycobacteria has the potential to suppress the development of asthma and/or atopy and there are reports in the Chinese medical literature of repeated vaccination with inactivated BCG being effective in the management of asthma. Forty-three patients with stable moderately severe asthma who were skin prick test positive to house dust mite were randomized to receive two intradermal injections of either phosphate-buffered saline (placebo), heat-killed Mycobacterium vaccae (0.5 mg), or delipidated deglycolipidated Mycobacterium vaccae (DDMV) (0.05 mg). Markers of asthma severity were measured for 3 mo and blood eosinophil, IgE levels, and the T cell proliferative and cytokine responses were monitored. There were no significant differences between either treatment group and the placebo group for any of the outcome variables. There was also no difference between the treatment groups and placebo for eosinophil, IgE levels, or the T cell proliferative and cytokine response. The results indicate no effect of low dose intradermal DDMV or M. vaccae on asthma severity in patients with established asthma.

Radial and longitudinal diffusion of myoglobin in single living heart and skeletal muscle cells.

We have used a fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) technique to measure radial diffusion of myoglobin and other proteins in single skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. We compare the radial diffusivities, D(r) (i.e., diffusion perpendicular to the long fiber axis), with longitudinal ones, D(l) (i.e., parallel to the long fiber axis), both measured by the same technique, for myoglobin (17 kDa), lactalbumin (14 kDa), and ovalbumin (45 kDa). At 22 degrees C, D(l) for myoglobin is 1.2 x 10(-7) cm(2)/s in soleus fibers and 1.1 x 10(-7) cm(2)/s in cardiomyocytes. D(l) for lactalbumin is similar in both cell types. D(r) for myoglobin is 1.2 x 10(-7) cm(2)/s in soleus fibers and 1.1 x 10(-7) cm(2)/s in cardiomyocytes and, again, similar for lactalbumin. D(l) and D(r) for ovalbumin are 0.5 x 10(-7) cm(2)/s. In the case of myoglobin, both D(l) and D(r) at 37 degrees C are about 80% higher than at 22 degrees C. We conclude that intracellular diffusivity of myoglobin and other proteins (i) is very low in striated muscle cells, approximately 1/10 of the value in dilute protein solution, (ii) is not markedly different in longitudinal and radial direction, and (iii) is identical in heart and skeletal muscle. A Krogh cylinder model calculation holding for steady-state tissue oxygenation predicts that, based on these myoglobin diffusivities, myoglobin-facilitated oxygen diffusion contributes 4% to the overall intracellular oxygen transport of maximally exercising skeletal muscle and less than 2% to that of heart under conditions of high work load.

Extracellular carbonic anhydrase activity facilitates lactic acid transport in rat skeletal muscle fibres.

1. In skeletal muscle an extracellular sarcolemmal carbonic anhydrase (CA) has been demonstrated. We speculate that this CA accelerates the interstitial CO2/HCO3- buffer system so that H+ ions can be rapidly delivered or buffered in the interstitial fluid. Because > 80 % of the lactate which crosses the sarcolemmal membrane is transported by the H+-lactate cotransporter, we examined the contributions of extracellular and intracellular CA to lactic acid transport, using ion-selective microelectrodes for measurements of intracellular pH (pHi) and fibre surface pH (pHs) in rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus fibres. 2. Muscle fibres were exposed to 20 mM sodium lactate in the absence and presence of the CA inhibitors benzolamide (BZ), acetazolamide (AZ), chlorzolamide (CZ) and ethoxzolamide (EZ). The initial slopes (dpHs/dt, dpHi/dt) and the amplitudes (DeltapHs, DeltapHi) of pH changes were quantified. From dpHi/dt, DeltapHi and the total buffer factor (BFtot) the lactate fluxes (mM min-1) and intracellular lactate concentrations ([lactate]i) were estimated. 3. BFtot was obtained as the sum of the non-HCO3- buffer factor (BFnon-HCO3) and the HCO3- buffer factor (BFHCO3). BFnon-HCO3 was 35 +/- 4 mM pH-1 for the EDL (n = 14) and 86 /- 16 mM pH-1 for the soleus (n = 14). 4. In soleus, 10 mM cinnamate inhibited lactate influx by 44 % and efflux by 30 %; in EDL, it inhibited lactate influx by 37 % and efflux by 20 %. Cinnamate decreased [lactate]i, in soleus by 36 % and in EDL by 45 %. In soleus, 1 mM DIDS reduced lactate influx by 18 % and efflux by 16 %. In EDL, DIDS lowered the influx by 27 % but had almost no effect on efflux. DIDS reduced [lactate]i by 20 % in soleus and by 26 % in EDL. 5. BZ (0.01 mM) and AZ (0.1 mM), which inhibit only the extracellular sarcolemmal CA, led to a significant increase in dpHs/dt and pHs by about 40 %-150 % in soleus and EDL. BZ and AZ inhibited the influx and efflux of lactate by 25 %-50 % and reduced [lactate]i by about 40 %. The membrane-permeable CA inhibitors CZ (0.5 mM) and EZ (0.1 mM), which inhibit the extracellular as well as the intracellular CAs, exerted no greater effects than the poorly permeable inhibitors BZ and AZ did. 6. In soleus, 10 mM cinnamate inhibited the lactate influx by 47 %. Addition of 0.01 mM BZ led to a further inhibition by only 10 %. BZ alone reduced the influx by 37 %. 7. BZ (0.01 mM) had no influence on the Km value of the lactate transport, but led to a decrease in maximal transport rate (Vmax). In EDL, BZ reduced Vmax by 50 % and in soleus by about 25 %. 8. We conclude that the extracellular sarcolemmal CA plays an important role in lactic acid transport, while internal CA has no effect, a difference most likely attributable to the high internal vs. low extracellular BF(non-HCO3). The fact that the effects of cinnamate and BZ are not additive indicates that the two inhibitors act at distinct sites on the same transport pathway for lactic acid.

Protein diffusion in living skeletal muscle fibers: dependence on protein size, fiber type, and contraction.

Sarcoplasmic protein diffusion was studied under different conditions, using microinjection in combination with microspectrophotometry. Six globular proteins with molecular masses between 12 and 3700 kDa, with diameters from 3 to 30 nm, were used for the experiments. Proteins were injected into single, intact skeletal muscle fibers taken from either soleus or extensor digitorum longus (edl) muscle of adult rats. No correlation was found between sarcomere spacing and the sarcoplasmic diffusion coefficient (D) for all proteins studied. D of the smaller proteins cytochrome c (diameter 3.1 nm), myoglobin (diameter 3.5 nm), and hemoglobin (diameter 5.5 nm) amounted to only approximately 1/10 of their value in water and was not increased by auxotonic fiber contractions. D for cytochrome c and myoglobin was significantly higher in fibers from edl (mainly type II fibers) compared to fibers from soleus (mainly type I fibers). Measurements of D for myoglobin at 37 degrees C in addition to 22 degrees C led to a Q(10) of 1.46 for this temperature range. For the larger proteins catalase (diameter 10.5 nm) and ferritin (diameter 12.2 nm), a decrease in D to approximately 1/20 and approximately 1/50 of that in water was observed, whereas no diffusive flux at all of earthworm hemoglobin (diameter 30 nm) along the fiber axis could be detected. We conclude that 1) sarcoplasmic protein diffusion is strongly impaired by the presence of the myofilamental lattice, which also gives rise to differences in diffusivity between different fiber types; 2) contractions do not cause significant convection in sarcoplasm and do not lead to increased diffusional transport; and 3) in addition to the steric hindrance that slows down the diffusion of smaller proteins, diffusion of large proteins is further hindered when their dimensions approach the interfilament distances. This molecular sieve property progressively reduces intracellular diffusion of proteins when the molecular diameter increases to more than approximately 10 nm.

Properties of a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor protein in flounder serum.

The blood serum of the European flounder Platichthys flesus strongly inhibits soluble erythrocytic carbonic anhydrase from the same species. The inhibition is of the uncompetitive type. Hence, the mechanism of the carbonic anhydrase inhibition is different from that of all other known carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. The serum showed no inhibitory effect on carbonic anhydrase from human and bovine red blood cells. By applying the (18)O exchange reaction, it could be demonstrated that the presence of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor in the extracellular fluid has no effect on carbonic anhydrase in intact red blood cells. Thus, this carbonic anhydrase inhibitor seems to act only within the plasma space of the circulatory system. However, the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor does appear to reduce the bicarbonate permeability of flounder red cells to approximately one-quarter of normal levels as measured by the (18)O exchange reaction. The 28 kDa carbonic anhydrase inhibitor was isolated from the serum by gel filtration. The isolated inhibitor was detected in acrylamide gels as a single band representing a 7 kDa protein. The denaturing conditions used in electrophoresis presumably led to a dissociation of the native protein into subunits.

Association of beta2-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms with severe asthma.

BACKGROUND: There is considerable interest in the role of different candidate loci in the development of asthma. This study investigates the association between asthma severity and previously identified polymorphisms at two sites within the beta2-adrenergic receptor (beta2AR) gene: the Arg16-->Gly16 and Gln27-->Glu27 alleles. METHODS: Restriction enzyme analysis of amplified beta2AR gene products (PCR-RFLP) was used to analyse the frequency of the Arg16-->Gly16 and Gln27-->Glu27 polymorphisms within the beta2AR gene in 95 severe asthmatic patients (with a markedly increased risk of death from asthma), 59 mild asthmatic patients, and a control group of 92 nonasthmatic subjects. RESULTS: The Gly16 polymorphism was significantly associated with asthma severity with odds ratios (95% CI) for the Gly16 allele being 1.56 (1.02-2.40, P = 0.04) and 0. 98 (0.61-1.57, P = 0.92) for the severe and mild asthma groups, respectively. The corresponding odds ratios (95% CI) for Gly16 homozygotes were 1.91 (0.82-4.41, P = 0.13) and 0.82 (0.35-1.92, P = 0.65) for the severe and mild asthma groups, respectively. There was no significant association between either polymorphism at amino acid 27 and asthma or asthma severity. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the polymorphisms of amino acids 16 and 27 of the beta2AR gene are not associated with the development of asthma per se, but that the Gly16 polymorphism may play a role in the pathogenesis of asthma severity.