Hydrogel-Based Pre-Clinical Evaluation of Repurposed FDA-Approved Drugs for AML.

In vivo models of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are low throughput, and standard liquid culture models fail to recapitulate the mechanical and biochemical properties of the extracellular matrix-rich protective bone marrow niche that contributes to drug resistance. Candidate drug discovery in AML requires advanced synthetic platforms to improve our understanding of the impact of mechanical cues on drug sensitivity in AML. By use of a synthetic, self-assembling peptide hydrogel (SAPH) of modifiable stiffness and composition, a 3D model of the bone marrow niche to screen repurposed FDA-approved drugs has been developed and utilized. AML cell proliferation was dependent on SAPH stiffness, which was optimized to facilitate colony growth. Three candidate FDA-approved drugs were initially screened against the THP-1 cell line and mAF9 primary cells in liquid culture, and EC50 values were used to inform drug sensitivity assays in the peptide hydrogel models. Salinomycin demonstrated efficacy in both an 'early-stage' model in which treatment was added shortly after initiation of AML cell encapsulation, and an 'established' model in which time-encapsulated cells had started to form colonies. Sensitivity to Vidofludimus treatment was not observed in the hydrogel models, and Atorvastatin demonstrated increased sensitivity in the 'established' compared to the 'early-stage' model. AML patient samples were equally sensitive to Salinomycin in the 3D hydrogels and partially sensitive to Atorvastatin. Together, this confirms that AML cell sensitivity is drug- and context-specific and that advanced synthetic platforms for higher throughput are valuable tools for pre-clinical evaluation of candidate anti-AML drugs.

A same-day assay predicts apoptotic response to combined BCL-2 and MCL-1 BH3-mimetic targeting in multiple myeloma cells.

Recent advances in treatment options for multiple myeloma (MM) have positive impact on patient survival. However, there is a short fall of rapid and reliable assays that can predict patient response to novel agents. The anti-apoptotic proteins B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) and myeloid cell leukaemia-1 (MCL-1), are necessary for MM survival, although most myelomas are more dependent on MCL-1. BCL-2 inhibition alone yields significant cytotoxicity in only a minority of cases, therefore targeting both proteins simultaneously, is a therapeutic option. Venetoclax and S63845 are BCL-2 and MCL-1 targeting BH3-mimetics which have demonstrated apoptotic synergy in MM. We investigated whether a novel short-term flow cytometric cytochrome c release assay could predict response to dual BH3-mimetic targeting in MM cells. Six human myeloma cell lines (HMCL) and seven primary samples were treated with venetoclax and S63845 alone or in combination. The 4-hour assay confirmed the drug combination was synergistic in all HMCL tested. Annexin-V data at 48 hours corresponded with 4-hour response verifying the assay as a predictor of drug sensitivity. All primary samples responded to the drug combination, including samples with 1q gain and t(4;14) translocation. Normal stem cells were unaffected by the drug combination. We have developed a novel assay with the potential to predict response to therapy in MM cells.

Early changes in rpS6 phosphorylation and BH3 profiling predict response to chemotherapy in AML cells.

Blasts from different patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) vary in the agent(s) to which they are most responsive. With a myriad of novel agents to evaluate, there is a lack of predictive biomarkers to precisely assign targeted therapies to individual patients. Primary AML cells often survive poorly in vitro, thus confounding conventional cytotoxicity assays. The purpose of this work was to assess the potential of two same-day functional predictive assays in AML cell lines to predict long-term response to chemotherapy. (i) Ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6) is a downstream substrate of PI3K/akt/mTOR/ kinase and MAPK kinase pathways and its dephosphorylation is also triggered by DNA double strand breaks. Phospho-rpS6 is reliably measurable by flow cytometry and thus has the potential to function as a biomarker of responsiveness to several therapeutic agents. (ii) A cell's propensity for apoptosis can be interrogated via a functional assay termed "Dynamic BH3 Profiling" in which mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization in drug-treated cells can be driven by pro-apoptotic BH3 domain peptides such as PUMA-BH3. The extent to which a particular cell is primed for apoptosis by the drug can be determined by measuring the amount of cytochrome C released on addition of BH3 peptide. We demonstrate that phospho-rpS6 expression and PUMA-BH3 peptide-induced cytochrome C release after 4 hours both predict long term chemoresponsiveness to tyrosine kinase inhibitors and DNA double strand break inducers in AML cell lines. We also describe changes in expression levels of the prosurvival BCL-2 family member Mcl-1 and the pro-apoptotic protein BIM after short term drug culture.

Predicting effective pro-apoptotic anti-leukaemic drug combinations using co-operative dynamic BH3 profiling.

The BH3-only apoptosis agonists BAD and NOXA target BCL-2 and MCL-1 respectively and co-operate to induce apoptosis. On this basis, therapeutic drugs targeting BCL-2 and MCL-1 might have enhanced activity if used in combination. We identified anti-leukaemic drugs sensitising to BCL-2 antagonism and drugs sensitising to MCL-1 antagonism using the technique of dynamic BH3 profiling, whereby cells were primed with drugs to discover whether this would elicit mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation in response to BCL-2-targeting BAD-BH3 peptide or MCL-1-targeting MS1-BH3 peptide. We found that a broad range of anti-leukaemic agents-notably MCL-1 inhibitors, DNA damaging agents and FLT3 inhibitors-sensitise leukaemia cells to BAD-BH3. We further analysed the BCL-2 inhibitors ABT-199 and JQ1, the MCL-1 inhibitors pladienolide B and torin1, the FLT3 inhibitor AC220 and the DNA double-strand break inducer etoposide to correlate priming responses with co-operative induction of apoptosis. ABT-199 in combination with pladienolide B, torin1, etoposide or AC220 strongly induced apoptosis within 4 hours, but the MCL-1 inhibitors did not co-operate with etoposide or AC220. In keeping with the long half-life of BCL-2, the BET domain inhibitor JQ1 was found to downregulate BCL-2 and to prime cells to respond to MS1-BH3 at 48, but not at 4 hours: prolonged priming with JQ1 was then shown to induce rapid cytochrome C release when pladienolide B, torin1, etoposide or AC220 were added. In conclusion, dynamic BH3 profiling is a useful mechanism-based tool for understanding and predicting co-operative lethality between drugs sensitising to BCL-2 antagonism and drugs sensitising to MCL-1 antagonism. A plethora of agents sensitised cells to BAD-BH3-mediated mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation in the dynamic BH3 profiling assay and this was associated with effective co-operation with the BCL-2 inhibitory compounds ABT-199 or JQ1.

Genetic biomarkers predict response to dual BCL-2 and MCL-1 targeting in acute myeloid leukaemia cells.

Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cells often up-regulate pro-survival members of the BCL-2 protein family, such as BCL-2 and MCL-1, to avoid apoptosis. Venetoclax (ABT-199) targets BCL-2 and has shown promising efficacy in AML but over-expression of MCL-1 can cause resistance. A co-operative approach, targeting both BCL-2 and MCL-1 may therefore prove beneficial. This study investigated the potential synergistic relationship between Venetoclax and the MCL-1 inhibitor S63845 in AML cells. We treated MV4-11 cells and primary AML samples for 4 hours with Venetoclax, S63845 or the combination. We used a short-term flow cytometric technique to assess synergy using cytochrome C release as a read out of response. The combination of Venetoclax and S63845 produced a synergistic apoptotic response in MV4-11 cells and primary samples, including the leukaemia re-populating leukaemic stem cell (LSC) population, in 92% of the samples. Known molecular biomarkers of response to BCL-2 and MCL-1 targeting agents were corroborated, and augmented, with the short-term functional assay. The assay also predicted potential biomarkers of response to the combination of BCL-2 and MCL-1 targeting agents. Primary samples with an IDH2_140 mutation were more sensitive to Venetoclax as a single agent whereas samples with a FLT3-ITD mutation were more resistant. This resistance could be reversed when combined with S63845. All FLT3-ITD and NPM1 mutated samples were sensitive to the combination of drugs. We report that co-operatively targeting BCL-2 and MCL-1 may be beneficial in AML and a short-term in vitro assay can identify patients who might best respond to this combination.

Complementary dynamic BH3 profiles predict co-operativity between the multi-kinase inhibitor TG02 and the BH3 mimetic ABT-199 in acute myeloid leukaemia cells.

Direct co-operation between sensitiser molecules BAD and NOXA in mediating apoptosis suggests that therapeutic agents which sensitise to BAD may complement agents which sensitise to NOXA. Dynamic BH3 profiling is a novel methodology that we have applied to the measurement of complementarity between sensitiser BH3 peptide mimetics and therapeutic agents. Using dynamic BH3 profiling, we show that the agent TG02, which downregulates MCL-1, sensitises to the BCL-2-inhibitory BAD-BH3 peptide, whereas the BCL-2 antagonist ABT-199 sensitises to MCL-1 inhibitory NOXA-BH3 peptide in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cells. At the concentrations used, the peptides did not trigger mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation in their own right, but primed cells to release Cytochrome C in the presence of an appropriate trigger of a complementary pathway. In KG-1a cells TG02 and ABT-199 synergised to induce apoptosis. In heterogeneous AML patient samples we noted a range of sensitivities to the two agents. Although some individual samples markedly favoured one agent or the other, in the group as a whole the combination of TG02 + ABT-199 was significantly more cytotoxic than either agent individually. We conclude that dynamic NOXA and BAD BH3 profiling is a sensitive methodology for investigating molecular pathways of drug action and complementary mechanisms of chemoresponsiveness.

Distinct poor prognostic subgroups of acute myeloid leukaemia, FLT3-ITD and P-glycoprotein-positive, have contrasting levels of FOXO1.

Regulation of ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein/Pgp) in AML was investigated. In a historical cohort with Pgp and transcriptional regulator expression profiling data available (n=141), FOXO1 correlated with Pgp protein expression. This was confirmed in an independent cohort (n=204). Down-regulation (siRNA) or hyperactivation (nicotinamide) of FOXO1 led to corresponding changes in Pgp. Low FOXO1 expression correlated with FLT3-ITDs (p<0.001) and siRNA inhibition of FLT3-ITD up-regulated FOXO1. As FOXO1 is a key growth regulator, it may underpin biological differences between Pgp-positive clones (low WBC and primary resistant disease) and clones with a FLT3-ITD (associated with a high WBC and early relapse).

The multi-kinase inhibitor TG02 overcomes signalling activation by survival factors to deplete MCL1 and XIAP and induce cell death in primary acute myeloid leukaemia cells.

The novel multi-kinase inhibitor TG02 has selectivity against cell cycle and transcriptional cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) as well as fms-like tyrosine kinase receptor-3 (FLT3). Inhibition of transcriptional CDKs preferentially depletes short-lived proteins such as MCL1. We evaluated the in vitro toxicity of TG02 to primary acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cells in the presence of survival signalling pathway activation by cytokines and fibronectin. One hundred nanomolar TG02 induced a median decrease of 40% in bulk cell survival and 43% in the CD34(+) CD38(-) CD123(+) subset. A 90% inhibitory concentration of 500 nmol/l indicated that TG02 toxicity is not halted by protective cell cycle arrest. Samples with FLT3 internal tandem duplication were not preferentially targeted. By flow cytometry, TG02 treatment caused loss of RNA Polymerase II serine 2 phosphorylation in patient samples, which correlated strongly with BAX activation (R(2) =0·89), suggesting these as potential biomarkers for clinical studies. MCL1 and XIAP expression also decreased. Repeated brief exposure to TG02 in MOLM-13 cells did not result in compensatory up-regulation of survival protein expression. In conclusion, TG02 is potently cytotoxic towards CD34(+) CD38(-) CD123(+) and bulk AML cells, despite protective signalling pathway activation. This antitumour activity is most likely mediated by dephosphorylation of RNA Polymerase II leading to depletion of survival molecules such as MCL1 and XIAP, with subsequent BAX activation and apoptosis.

P-glycoprotein and breast cancer resistance protein in acute myeloid leukaemia cells treated with the aurora-B kinase inhibitor barasertib-hQPA.

BACKGROUND: Aurora kinases play an essential role in orchestrating chromosome alignment, segregation and cytokinesis during mitotic progression, with both aurora-A and B frequently over-expressed in a variety of human malignancies. Over-expression of the ABC drug transporter proteins P-glycoprotein (Pgp) and Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) is a major obstacle for chemotherapy in many tumour types with Pgp conferring particularly poor prognosis in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML). Barasertib-hQPA is a highly selective inhibitor of aurora-B kinase that has shown tumouricidal activity against a range tumour cell lines including those of leukaemic AML origin. METHODS: Effect of barasertib-hQPA on the pHH3 biomarker and cell viability was measured in a panel of leukaemic cell lines and 37 primary AML samples by flow cytometry. Pgp status was determined by flow cytometry and BCRP status by flow cytometry and real-time PCR. RESULTS: In this study we report the creation of the cell line OCI-AML3DNR, which over-expresses Pgp but not BCRP or multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP), through prolonged treatment of OCI-AML3 cells with daunorubicin. We demonstrate that Pgp (OCI-AML3DNR and KG-1a) and BCRP (OCI-AML6.2) expressing AML cell lines are less sensitive to barasertib-hQPA induced pHH3 inhibition and subsequent loss of viability compared to transporter negative cell lines. We also show that barasertib-hQPA resistance in these cell lines can be reversed using known Pgp and BCRP inhibitors. We report that barasertib-hQPA is not an inhibitor of Pgp or BCRP, but by using 14[C]-barasertib-hQPA that it is effluxed by these transporters. Using phosphoHistone H3 (pHH3) as a biomarker of barasertib-hQPA responsiveness in primary AML blasts we determined that Pgp and BCRP positive primary samples were less sensitive to barasertib-hQPA induced pHH3 inhibition (p = <0.001) than samples without these transporters. However, we demonstrate that IC50 inhibition of pHH3 by barasertib-hQPA was achieved in 94.6% of these samples after 1 hour drug treatment, in contrast to the resistance of the cell lines. CONCLUSION: We conclude that Pgp and BCRP status and pHH3 down-regulation in patients treated with barasertib should be monitored in order to establish whether transporter-mediated efflux is sufficient to adversely impact on the efficacy of the agent.

The FLT3 internal tandem duplication mutation is a secondary target of the aurora B kinase inhibitor AZD1152-HQPA in acute myelogenous leukemia cells.

Aurora kinases play an essential role in orchestrating chromosome alignment, segregation, and cytokinesis during mitotic progression and both aurora-A and B are frequently overexpressed in a variety of human malignancies. In this study, we report the effects of AZD1152-HQPA, a highly selective inhibitor of aurora-B kinase, in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cell lines and primary samples. We show that AZD1152-HQPA inhibits the phosphorylation of Histone H3 (pHH3) on serine 10 resulting in polyploid cells, apoptosis, and loss of viability in a panel of AML cell lines. We also show that AZD1152-HQPA sensitivity in our cell lines is irrespective of p53 status and the FLT3-ITD-expressing MOLM-13 and MV4-11 cell lines are particularly sensitive to AZD1152-HQPA. Internal tandem duplications (ITD) within the FLT3 tyrosine kinase receptor are found in approximately 25% of AML patients and are associated with a poor prognosis. Here, we report that AZD1152-HQPA directly targets phosphorylated FLT3 along with inhibiting its downstream target phospho-signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) in the FLT3-ITD cell lines. We show pHH3 expression in primary AML blasts and its inhibition by AZD1152-HQPA at low doses in all of our primary samples tested. AZD1152-HQPA inhibits the clonogenic potential of primary AML samples, with FLT3-ITD samples being the most sensitive (P = 0.029). FLT3-ITD primary samples are also more sensitive to pHH3 inhibition (P = 0.022) and are particularly sensitive to pSTAT5 downregulation after treatment with AZD1152-HQPA compared with FLT3 wild-type samples (P = 0.007). We conclude that mutant FLT3 is a secondary target of AZD1152-HQPA and that FLT3-ITD primary samples are particularly sensitive to the drug.

Impaired S-phase arrest in acute myeloid leukemia cells with a FLT3 internal tandem duplication treated with clofarabine.

PURPOSE: Acute myeloid leukemia cells with an internal tandem duplication mutation of FLT3 (FLT3-ITD) have effective DNA repair mechanisms on exposure to drugs. Despite this, the phenotype is not associated with primary resistant disease. We show defects in the response of mutant FLT3 AML cells to the S-phase drug clofarabine that could account for the apparent contradiction. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We studied responses of AML cells to clofarabine in vitro. RESULTS: When treated with a short pulse of clofarabine, FLT3-ITD-harboring MOLM-13 and MV4.11 cells undergo similar damage levels (gammaH2AX foci) to wild-type cells but have a better repair capability than wild-type cells. However, whereas the wild-type cells undergo rapid S-phase arrest, the S-phase checkpoint fails in mutant cells. Cell cycle arrest in response to DNA damage in S phase is effected via loss of the transcriptional regulator cdc25A. This loss is reduced or absent in clofarabine-treated FLT3 mutant cells. Furthermore, cdc25A message levels are maintained by the FLT3-ITD, such that message is reduced by 87.5% on exposure to FLT3 small interfering RNA. Primary FLT3-ITD samples from untreated patients also display impaired cell cycle arrest and show enhanced sensitivity on prolonged treatment with clofarabine compared with wild-type samples. CONCLUSION: There is a reversal of phenotype in mutant FLT3 cells dependent on the length of exposure to clofarabine. Efficient DNA repair may render the cells resistant to a short pulse of the drug, but a failure of cell cycle checkpoint(s) in S phase renders the cells sensitive to prolonged exposure.

FLT3-ITD expression levels and their effect on STAT5 in AML with and without NPM mutations.

FLT3-internal tandem duplication (ITD) mutations are heterogeneous with regards to length and proportion of DNA harbouring the mutation and the expression level of FLT3 also varies widely, however very little is known about the biological effects of these variables. We studied FLT3-associated biological parameters in 322 acute myeloid leukaemia samples to establish their importance. Expression of total FLT3 transcripts was shown to be significantly higher in the FLT3-ITD cohort (n = 121) compared to the wild-type cohort (P = 0.004). Whilst phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (phospho-STAT5) was not confined to FLT3-ITD samples, within the FLT3-ITD group phosphorylation correlated with adjusted FLT3-ITD levels assessed by determining the total transcripts and proportion of FLT3-ITD within a sample. Expression of the STAT5 downstream target Bcl-xl (an isoform of BCL2L1) was strongly correlated with FLT3 total and adjusted FLT3-ITD levels in FLT3-ITD samples (P < 0.001), however there was no association between Bcl-xl and phospho-STAT5 levels suggesting that STAT5 is not the sole regulator of Bcl-xl in FLT3-ITD cells. We further stratified our cohort by the presence/absence of a cytoplasmic nucleophosmin NPMc+ mutation. Samples co-expressing NPMc+ had longer FLT3-ITD mutations (P = 0.01) and there was a high occurrence of NPMc+ in samples that had >1 FLT3-ITD mutation. Phospho-STAT5 levels were reduced in the FLT3-ITD/NPMc+ group (P = 0.04) suggesting that NPMc+ may oppose the FLT3-ITD-dependent activation of STAT5.

A Stat5b transgene is capable of inducing CD8+ lymphoblastic lymphoma in the absence of normal TCR/MHC signaling.

Stat5 proteins are critical signaling molecules activated by many cytokines. Within the immune system, Stat5 plays important roles related to the development of thymocytes and proliferation of T cells. Stat5 has been implicated in malignant transformation, and moreover, the activated tyrosine phosphorylated form of Stat5 is frequently observed in human lymphomas. We previously demonstrated the oncogenic potential of Stat5, with thymic lymphoblastic lymphomas developing in a significant proportion of transgenic (TG) mice overexpressing Stat5a or Stat5b in lymphocytes. In addition, immunization or expression of a T-cell receptor (TCR) transgene augmented the rate of tumor formation. Here, we investigate the mechanism of Stat5-mediated lymphomagenesis by exploring the contributions of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)/TCR and pre-TCR signals. We present data demonstrating that Stat5b TG mice unexpectedly develop CD8(+) lymphoma even in the absence of either pre-TCR signaling or normal thymic selection. Indeed, acceleration of Stat5b transgene-mediated lymphoma occurred on TCRalpha(-/-) and pre-TCRalpha(-/-) backgrounds. In light of these data, we propose a model in which alterations in T-cell development at the double-negative/double-positive (DN/DP) stages cooperate with cytokine-mediated pathways in immature thymocytes to give rise to lymphoblastic T-cell lymphomas in Stat5b TG mice.

Sequential influences of leukemia-specific and genetic factors on p-glycoprotein expression in blasts from 817 patients entered into the National Cancer Research Network acute myeloid leukemia 14 and 15 trials.

PURPOSE: P-glycoprotein (Pgp) is a major prognostic factor for chemotherapy failure in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This study compared the influence of genetic and leukemia-specific factors on Pgp. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Eight hundred and seventeen samples were studied prospectively for Pgp protein expression and function and G1199A, G2677T, and C3435T polymorphisms in the encoding gene ABCB1. RESULTS: Age, low WBC count, high bcl-2, secondary AML and myelodysplastic syndrome, and adverse cytogenetics all correlated strongly with high Pgp (MRK16) protein expression. However, ABCB1 3435TT homozygosity was negatively correlated with Pgp. Pgp protein is only expressed in 41% of samples such that the negative effect of the polymorphism was not seen at baseline Pgp levels but was marked in the upper 41% of samples (MRK16 Deltamean fluorescence intensity of 75th centile sample = 9 units for TT variant samples and 26 units for CC/CT; P = 0.003). However, no association was found between genetic factors and Pgp function using rhodamine 123 accumulation. CONCLUSIONS: The genetic polymorphism 3435TT (which results in unstable mRNA) has a significant effect on Pgp expression, but this is only seen in approximately 40% of cases in which mRNA and protein are detectable. Moreover, leukemia-specific factors, such as low WBC count and poor risk cytogenetics, have a much greater effect than genetic polymorphisms on Pgp expression in AML blasts.

P-glycoprotein is downregulated in KG1a-primitive leukemia cells by LDL cholesterol deprivation and by HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors.

OBJECTIVE: P-glycoprotein (pgp) is a membrane transporter encoded by the multidrug resistance (MDR1, ABCB1) gene. Pgp is a poor prognostic factor in elderly patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). In addition to its role in drug efflux, pgp has been implicated in cellular cholesterol homeostasis. We investigated the effects of exogenous cholesterol removal on pgp expression and function. METHODS: KG1a drug-naïve, primitive leukemia cells were cultured in serum-free medium with or without the addition of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. After 72 hours, pgp expression and function was assessed by flow cytometry and total cholesterol content of the KG1a cells was determined by the Amplex Red cholesterol assay. The addition of clinically available cholesterol-lowering agents, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors to KG1a cells was also assessed. RESULTS: There was a 39% (SEM = 8.3%; p = 0.03) decrease in pgp protein expression after 3 days of serum-free culture. The decrease was also observed at the message and functional levels. In the presence of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, pgp expression was restored to 86% of the basal value. Addition of a HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor to KG1a cells resulted in an additional 26% (lovastatin, p = 0.03) and 16% (pravastatin, p = 0.05) reduction in pgp, respectively. Furthermore, toxicity of the pgp substrate drug daunorubicin was enhanced following lovastatin preculture (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: LDL cholesterol contributes to pgp expression and chemoresistance in primitive leukemia cells. Use of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors may be of clinical value in lowering pgp expression in AML.

NK cells rapidly remove B16F10 tumor cells in a perforin and interferon-gamma independent manner in vivo.

Natural killer (NK) cells have been shown critical in reducing tumor lung metastasis in various murine cancer models. Effector molecules such as perforin and IFN-gamma may play important roles in inhibition of metastasis. However, most of these conclusions were based on experiments that involved quantitation of metastatic colonies several weeks after tumor challenge. The roles of NK cells and their effector molecules (perforin and IFN-gamma) in the initial immune responses against tumor metastasis in lungs are still unknown. By using the B16F10 melanoma tumor model combined with confocal microscopy, we observed an increase in numbers of B16F10 cells in NK-depleted mice at 60 min post tumor inoculation, but this effect was independent of perforin or IFN-gamma. In addition, NK cell numbers in lungs after tumor injection rapidly increased suggesting a redistribution of NK cells in the lungs. However, NK cells were not found in contact with tumor cells until day 6 or later. Our data indicate that during early responses against B16F10 cells, NK cells use another mechanism(s) besides perforin and IFN-gamma to prevent tumor metastasis.

Immunodeficient mice have elevated numbers of NK cells in non-lymphoid tissues.

Natural killer (NK) cells are an important part of the innate immune response. They have the ability to recognize and kill many types of tumor cells and promote immunity against intracellular pathogens. In this study, we analyzed the in situ localization of NK cells within wildtype and immunodeficient mice using a novel in situ analysis method. We have identified NK cells in tissues of B6 and B6.Rag1(-/-) mice and demonstrated an increase in the percentage of NK cells and the total number of NK cells in the lung and liver of immunodeficient mice. This increase was not due to an increase in NK cell activation. This study describes a means to identify NK cells within complex tissue environments, and the increase in NK cells in non-lymphoid tissues may explain much of the increased NK cell activity observed in T-cell-deficient mice.

GFP transgenic mice show dynamics of lung macrophages.

The dynamics of tissue macrophages are poorly understood. We have developed a model where only lung macrophages express high levels of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and are easily identified and followed by confocal microscopy. The EGFP+ cells had the morphology of macrophages and express CD11c, CD11b, and F4/80, but not NK1.1 or CD3. The F4/80+ EGFP+ cells were found exclusively in the lung and not in lymph nodes, spleen, blood, liver, intestine, or uterus. These EGFP+ cells are phagocytic and can be activated to migrate within the lung in response to LPS stimulation. In this study, we describe a new model system that allows the specific study of macrophages in the lung.

P-glycoprotein is implicated in the inhibition of ceramide-induced apoptosis in TF-1 acute myeloid leukemia cells by modulation of the glucosylceramide synthase pathway.

OBJECTIVE: Ceramide, an intermediate of apoptosis induction in response to chemotherapy, can be detoxified by glycosylation at the cytoplasmic surface of the Golgi membrane. P-glycoprotein (p-gp) might augment ceramide glycosylation by translocating glucosylceramide (GC) across the Golgi membrane. We aimed to show that glucosylceramide synthase (GCS) activity is linked to p-gp expression and resistance to ceramide-induced apoptosis in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). METHODS: Apoptosis and cell-cycle analysis were measured using propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry. Fluorescent microscopy assessed p-gp expression in, and rhodamine 123 uptake by, the Golgi. P-gp interaction with GC was assessed by modulation of rhodamine accumulation. The GCS activity assay was based upon the transfer of UDP-(3)H-glucose to C8-ceramide to form radiolabeled GC, by rate-limiting cell-derived GCS. TLC and fluorimetry were used to measure the metabolites of fluorescent ceramide. Cell viability was measured using 7-amino-actinomycin D staining and flow cytometry with an internal standard for cell enumeration. RESULTS: P-gp(+) cell lines (KG1a, TF-1) were resistant to C8-ceramide-induced apoptosis compared to p-gp(-) cell lines (HL-60, U937). P-gp inhibitors GF120918 and cyclosporin A enhanced ceramide-induced apoptosis in the p-gp expressing cells. P-gp expression was identified in the Golgi of these cells. Pgp's efflux function in TF-1 but not KG1a cells was inhibited by glucosylceramide. In the presence of p-gp inhibitors, R123 accumulation in the Golgi of TF-1 cells was lost, and GCS activity and lactosylceramide formation were downregulated. Intact cells were necessary for the involvement of p-gp in the regulation of GCS activity. CONCLUSION: Our data suggests that ceramide induces apoptosis in AML cells and that p-gp confers resistance to ceramide-induced apoptosis, with modulation of the ceramide-glucosylceramide pathway making a marked contribution to this resistance in TF-1 cells.