Analysis of eosinophils and myeloid progenitor responses to modified forms of MPIF-2.

Myeloid progenitor inhibitory factor (MPIF)-2 is a beta-chemokine with select and potent activities on eosinophils and myeloid progenitors. In the beta-chemokine family, biological activity is modulated by differential processing of the amino-terminus. Here, for MPIF-2, we describe the biological activities of NH(2)-terminal deletion mutants and compare regions necessary for eosinophil and myeloid progenitor activities. Five MPIF-2 proteins with deletions at the amino-terminus were produced in Escherichia coli and assayed for calcium mobilization, chemotaxis and receptor binding activities on eosinophils, and for their ability to inhibit colony formation of human myeloid bone marrow progenitors. For eosinophils, deletion of the first two amino acids did not markedly alter activity, while subsequent truncations result in a complete loss of activity. One of the MPIF-2 mutants, MPIF-2 (P30-R99) was converted from an agonist to an antagonist of eotaxin, MPIF-2 and MCP-4 functional responses in eosinophil calcium flux and chemotaxis assays. Surprisingly, while displaying a complete loss of agonist activity toward eosinophils, MPIF-2 (P30-R99) retains ability to inhibit human bone marrow myeloid progenitor cell colony formation. In addition, processing at the amino terminus of MPIF-2 in vivo, may result in a chemokine with altered biological activities.

A novel cytokine receptor-ligand pair. Identification, molecular characterization, and in vivo immunomodulatory activity.

As part of a large scale effort to discover novel secreted proteins, a cDNA encoding a novel cytokine was identified. Alignments of the sequence of the new protein, designated IL-17B, suggest it to be a homolog of the recently described T cell-derived cytokine, IL-17. By Northern analysis, EST distribution and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis, mRNA was detected in many cell types. A novel type I transmembrane protein, identified in an EST data base by homology to IL-17R, was found to bind specifically IL-17B, as determined by surface plasmon resonance analysis, flow cytometry, and co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Readily detectable transcription of IL-17BR was restricted to human kidney, pancreas, liver, brain, and intestines and only a few of the many cell lines tested. By using a rodent ortholog of IL-17BR as a probe, IL-17BR message was found to be drastically up-regulated during intestinal inflammation elicited by indomethacin treatment in rats. In addition, intraperitoneal injection of IL-17B purified from Chinese hamster ovary cells caused marked neutrophil migration in normal mice, in a specific and dose-dependent manner. Together these results suggest that IL-17B may be a novel proinflammatory cytokine acting on a restricted set of target cell types. They also demonstrate the strength of genomic approaches in the unraveling of novel biological pathways.

Bidirectional effect of interleukin-10 on early murine B-cell development: stimulation of flt3-ligand plus interleukin-7-dependent generation of CD19(-) ProB cells from uncommitted bone marrow progenitor cells and growth inhibition of CD19(+) ProB cells.

B-cell commitment and early development from multipotent hematopoietic progenitor cells has until recently been considered to be dependent on direct interaction with stromal cells. We recently showed that the flt3 ligand (FL) has a unique ability to interact with interleukin-7 (IL-7) to directly and selectively promote B-cell development from murine bone marrow progenitor cells with a combined myeloid and lymphoid potential. Here we report that whereas IL-10 alone has no ability to stimulate growth of primitive (Lin-Sca-1(+)c-kit+) bone marrow progenitor cells, it potently enhances FL + IL-7-induced proliferation (sevenfold). This enhanced proliferation results from recruitment of progenitors unresponsive to FL + IL-7 alone, as well as from increased growth of individual clones, resulting in a 7,000-fold cellular expansion over 12 days. Single cell cultures and delayed addition studies suggested that the stimulatory effect of IL-10 was directly mediated on the progenitor cells. The cells generated in response to FL + IL-7 + IL-10 appeared to be almost exclusively proB cells, as shown by their expression of B220, CD24, CD43, and lack of expression of c mu, myeloid, erythroid, and T-cell surface antigens. Although IL-10 also enhanced kit ligand (KL) + IL-7-induced proliferation of Lin-Sca-1(+)c-kit+ progenitor cells, the resulting cells were predominantly myeloid progeny. Accordingly, FL + IL-7 + IL-10 was 100-fold more efficient in stimulating production of proB cells than KL + IL-7 + IL-10. In contrast to its ability to stimulate the earliest phase of proB cell formation and proliferation, IL-10 inhibited growth of proB cells generated in response to FL + IL-7. Analysis of CD19 expression on cells generated in FL + IL-7 + IL-10 showed that almost all cells generated under these conditions lacked expression of CD19, in contrast to cells generated in the absence of IL-10, which were predominantly CD19(+). Replating of sorted CD19(+) and CD19(-) proB cells in FL + IL-7 or FL + IL-7 + IL-10 showed that IL-10 efficiently blocked growth of CD19(+), but not CD19(-) cells. Both CD19(-) and CD19(+) cells expressed lambda5 and VpreB , shown to be specific for B-cell progenitors. In addition, sorted CD19(-) cells generated CD19(+) cells in response to FL + IL-7. Thus, IL-10 has a dual regulatory effect on early B-cell development from primitive murine bone marrow progenitor cells in that it enhances FL + IL-7-induced proB-cell formation and growth before acquisition of CD19 expression, whereas growth of CD19(+) proB cells is inhibited.

Bone marrow and thymus expression of interferon-gamma results in severe B-cell lineage reduction, T-cell lineage alterations, and hematopoietic progenitor deficiencies.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) is an immunoregulatory lymphokine that is primarily produced by T cells and natural killer cells. It has effects on T-cell, B-cell, and macrophage differentiation and maturation. We have developed transgenic mice that express elevated levels of IFN-gamma mRNA and protein by inserting multiple copies of murine IFN-gamma genomic DNA containing an Ig lambda-chain enhancer in the first intron. The founder line carrying eight copies of this transgene has eightfold to 15-fold more IFN-gamma-producing cells in the bone marrow and spleen than do nontransgenic littermates. Transgenic mice show a pronounced reduction in B-lineage cells in the bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes. In addition, single positive (CD4+,CD8- and CD4-,CD8+) thymocyte numbers are increased twofold, yet the number of splenic T cells is reduced by 50%. There is also a twofold to threefold decrease in the frequency and total number of myeloid progenitors in the bone marrow. Granulomatous lesions and residual degenerating cartilaginous masses are also present in the bones of these mice. Overall, our data show that the abnormal expression of IFN-gamma in these transgenic mice results in multiple alterations in the immune system. These animals provide an important model to examine the role of IFN-gamma expression on lymphoid and myeloid differentiation and function.

Quantitative and cell-cycle differences in progenitor cells mobilized by recombinant human interleukin-7 and recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor.

Administration of recombinant human interleukin-7 (rhIL-7) to mice increases the exportation of myeloid progenitors (colony-forming unit [CFU]-c and CFU-granulocyte erythroid megakaryocyte macrophage [CFU-GEMM]) from the bone marrow (BM) to peripheral organs, including blood, and also increases the number of primitive progenitor and stem cells in the peripheral blood (PB). We now report that combined treatment of mice with rhIL-7 and recombinant human granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (rhG-CSF) stimulates a twofold to 10-fold increase in the total number of PB CFU-c, and a twofold to fivefold increase in the total number of PB CFU-spleen at day 8 (CFU-S8) over the increase stimulated by rhIL-7 or rhG-CSF alone. In addition, the quality of mobilized cells with trilineage, long-term marrow-repopulating activity is maintained or increased in mice treated with rhIL-7 and rhG-CSF compared with rhIL-7 or rhG-CSF alone. These differences in mobilizing efficiency suggest qualitative differences in the mechanisms by which rhIL-7 and rhG-CSF mobilize progenitor cells, in fact, the functional status of progenitor cells mobilized by rhIL-7 differs from that of cells mobilized by rhG-CSF in that the incidence of actively cycling (S-phase) progenitors obtained from the PB is about 20-fold higher for rhIL-7-treated mice than for mice treated with rhG-CSF. These results suggest the use of rhIL-7-mobilized progenitor/stem cells for gene-modification and tracking studies, and highlight different functions and rates of repopulation after reconstitution with PB leukocytes obtained from mice treated with rhIL-7 versus rhG-CSF.

Diverse immunological and hematological effects of interleukin 7: implications for clinical application.

Interleukin-7 (IL-7) was originally discovered to be a pre-B cell growth factor. Soon thereafter, a broader role for IL-7 in leukocyte development and function began to be identified. IL-7 now has been shown to be a critical cytokine for normal T and B lymphopoiesis and a mobilizer of pluripotent stem cells and myeloid progenitors. IL-7 has been demonstrated to enhance T cell function and induce cytokine expression in monocytes. Preclinical studies have already found that IL-7 could accelerate murine lymphocyte regeneration following chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation, induce antitumor effects in mice, and expand anti-HIV-specific human T cells. Thus it is essential that further preclinical and clinical research be performed to evaluate IL-7 as a potential therapy for leukopenia, bone marrow/stem cell transplantation, cancer, and HIV/AIDS.

Recombinant human IL-7 administration in mice affects colony-forming units-spleen and lymphoid precursor cell localization and accelerates engraftment of bone marrow transplants.

Murine reconstitution assays were used to investigate the effects of recombinant human interleukin-7 (rhIL-7) on myeloid and lymphoid precursors and on bone marrow engraftment. Reconstitution with bone marrow from rhIL-7-treated mice results in a 3.4-fold decrease in total colony-forming unit-spleen (CFU-S) activity (day 9) and an 18.1- and 11.9-fold decrease in its ability to generate thymocytes and splenic B lineage cells, respectively. In contrast, after reconstitution with splenocytes from rhIL-7-treated mice, CFU-S activity increased 23.6-fold (day 9) and the thymocyte and splenic B lineage cell regenerative capacity increased by 4.0- and 3.2-fold, respectively. In addition, CD43low+, B220low+ cells that contain pre-pro-B cells and pro-B cells were expanded two- to threefold and Ig mu-, B220+, CD2- and Ig mu-, B220+, CD2+ B lineage cells were expanded approximately 10-fold and 10- to 45-fold (depending on the tissue examined), respectively, after rhIL-7 treatment. Administration of rhIL-7 to irradiated mice transplanted with bone marrow resulted in accelerated T cell and B cell reconstitution by up to 2-4 weeks. Thus, rhIL-7 administration affects the distribution of myeloid and lymphoid precursors. Moreover, rhIL-7 administration accelerates murine bone marrow cell engraftment and therefore may be useful in reducing the engraftment time in bone marrow transplant patients.

Mobilization of long-term reconstituting hematopoietic stem cells in mice by recombinant human interleukin 7.

Administration of recombinant human interleukin 7 (rh)IL-7 to mice has been reported by our group to increase the exportation of myeloid progenitors (colony-forming unit [CFU]-c and CFU-granulocyte erythroid megakarocyte macrophage) from the bone marrow to peripheral organs (blood, spleen[s], and liver). We now report that IL-7 also stimulates a sixfold increase in the number of more primitive CFU-S day 8 (CFU-S8) and day 12 (CFU-S12) in the peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) of mice treated with rhIL-7 for 7 d. Moreover, > 90% of lethally irradiated recipient mice that received PBL from rhIL-7-treated donor mice have survived for > 6 mo whereas none of the recipient mice that received an equal number of PBL from diluent-treated donors survived. Flow cytometry analysis at 3 and 6 mo after transplantation revealed complete trilineage (T, B, and myelomonocytic cell) repopulation of bone marrow, thymus, and spleen by blood-borne stem/progenitor cells obtained from rhIL-7-treated donor mice. Thus, IL-7 may prove valuable for mobilizing pluripotent stem cells with long-term repopulating activity from the bone marrow to the peripheral blood for the purpose of gene modification and/or autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplantation.

Recombinant transforming growth factor beta 1 and beta 2 protect mice from acutely lethal doses of 5-fluorouracil and doxorubicin.

Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) and TGF-beta 2 can reversibly inhibit the proliferation of hematopoietic progenitor cells in vivo, leading us to hypothesize that such quiescent progenitors might be more resistant to high doses of cell cycle active chemotherapeutic drugs, thereby allowing dose intensification of such agents. Initial studies showed that whereas administration of TGF-beta 1 or TGF-beta 2 did not prevent death in normal mice treated with high doses of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), those mice that received TGF-beta 2 did exhibit the beginning of a hematologic recovery by day 11 after administration of 5-FU, and were preferentially rescued by a suboptimal number of transplanted bone marrow cells. Subsequently, it was found that the administration of TGF-beta 2 protected recovering progenitor cells from high concentrations of 5-FU in vitro. This protection coincided with the finding that significantly more progenitors for colony-forming unit-culture (CFU-c) and CFU-granulocyte, erythroid, megakaryocyte, macrophage (GEMM) were removed from S-phase by TGF-beta in mice undergoing hematopoietic recovery than in normal mice. Further studies showed that the administration of TGF-beta protected up to 90% of these mice undergoing hematologic recovery from a rechallenge in vivo with high dose 5-FU, while survival in mice not given TGF-beta was < 40%. Pretreatment of mice with TGF-beta 1 or TGF-beta 2 also protected 70-80% of mice from lethal doses of the noncycle active chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin hydrochloride (DXR). These results demonstrate that TGF-beta can protect mice from both the lethal hematopoietic toxicity of 5-FU, as well as the nonhematopoietic toxicity of DXR. This report thus shows that a negative regulator of hematopoiesis can be successfully used systemically to mediate chemoprotection in vivo.

Administration of recombinant human interleukin-7 to mice induces the exportation of myeloid progenitor cells from the bone marrow to peripheral sites.

The administration of recombinant human interleukin-7 (rhIL-7) to mice twice a day for 7 days does not appreciably change bone marrow (BM) cellularity, but does result in a threefold to fivefold increase in the total number of leukocytes in the spleen, an eightfold to 10-fold increase in the total number of nonparenchymal cells (NPC) obtained from the liver, and up to a 20-fold increase in the total number of peripheral white blood cells (WBC). This regimen of rhIL-7 administration also causes a profound reduction in the total number of progenitors in the BM for both single-lineage colony-forming units-culture (CFU-c) (> 90%) and multilineage CFU-granulocyte, erythroid, monocyte, megakaryocyte (CFU-GEMM) (> 99%) colonies. In contrast, mice treated with rhIL-7 exhibited increases in both CFU-c (20- to 40-fold, 20-fold, and 15- to 40-fold) and CFU-GEMM (8- to 10-fold, 30-fold, and 6- to 10-fold) cultured from the peripheral blood, spleen, and NPC, respectively. The increase in CFU in the NPC was accompanied by a fivefold increase in the number of MAC-1+ cells and a ninefold increase in the number of 8C5bright+ cells. Splenectomy of mice before the administration of rhIL-7 further increased the total number of WBC, NPC, and myeloid progenitors as compared with the rhIL-7-treated nonsplenectomized mice. Finally, selective depletion of the BM by intraperitoneal administration of 89Sr (98% reduction in BM cellularity and > 99% reduction in BM myeloid progenitors) abrogated the rhIL-7-induced increases in cellularity and myeloid progenitor number in the peripheral blood, spleen, and NPC. These results show that the changes in myelopoiesis observed after in vivo administration of rhIL-7 to mice result largely from the emigration of myeloid progenitors from the BM through the blood to the spleen, liver, and, possibly, other peripheral organs.

Protective effects of swainsonine on murine survival and bone marrow proliferation during cytotoxic chemotherapy.

We have investigated the ability of swainsonine, an indolizidine alkaloid with pleiotropic in vivo effects, to confer protection against the cytotoxic effects of both cell cycle-specific and cell cycle-nonspecific cytotoxic anticancer agents. The intraperitoneal administration of swainsonine decreased the lethality of methotrexate (MTX), fluorouracil (5-FU), cyclophosphamide (CPM), and doxorubicin (DOX) in non-tumor-bearing C57BL/6 mice. The increased survival rate was found to correlate with stimulation of bone marrow cell proliferation, as measured by increases in 1) bone marrow cellularity, 2) in vivo and in vitro colony-forming activity, and 3) engraftment efficiency. These responses were critically dependent on the dose, sequence, and timing of swainsonine administration. If these results are confirmed in humans, swainsonine may offer promise in future intensive chemotherapy programs, allowing increased dosage and/or frequency of administration of cytotoxic agents without increasing toxic effects in bone marrow.

Swainsonine stimulation of the proliferation and colony forming activity of murine bone marrow.

Swainsonine, an indolizidine alkaloid, was recently reported to exhibit both antineoplastic and immunomodulatory activities (Humphries, M.J.; Olden, K. Asparagine-linked oligosaccharides and tumor metastasis. Pharmacol. Ther. 44:85-105; 1989). In this study, we show that systemically administered swainsonine promoted the proliferation of murine bone marrow (BM) cells. Animals that received swainsonine intravenously exhibited a significant increase (approximately 5-10 fold) in BM cellularity, engraftment efficiency, and colony forming unit activity using in vitro or in vivo assays. BM cells derived from swainsonine-treated animals or treated with swainsonine in vitro also exhibited a 4-5 fold increase in [3H]-thymidine incorporation, suggesting that a larger fraction of the cells was in the S-phase of the cell cycle. This provides the first evidence that swainsonine, which stimulates the production of cytokines by cells of the immune system, promoted the proliferation of BM progenitor cells. These results suggest that swainsonine could prove valuable in patients undergoing intensive chemoradiotherapy or autologous BM transplantation by decreasing or possibly eliminating leukopenia or myelosuppression often associated with these procedures; it may also be a useful probe to investigate the mechanism of normal hematopoieses.

The potential importance of swainsonine in therapy for cancers and immunology.

Swainsonine, an indolizidine alkaloid, was initially used in biomedical research as a tool to investigate the biosynthesis and function of asparagine-linked 'complex' type oligosaccharide moieties of glycoproteins. Recently, swainsonine has generated interest in its potential use as an anticancer agent with reports that it (i) inhibits tumor growth and metastasis, (ii) augments natural killer (NK) and macrophage-mediated tumor cell killing, and (iii) stimulates bone marrow cell proliferation. The antineoplastic activity of swainsonine can be explained at least in part by augmentation of immune effector mechanisms. The potential application of swainsonine as an anticancer agent is discussed.

Inhibition of growth of subcutaneous xenografts and metastasis of human breast carcinoma by swainsonine: modulation of tumor cell HLA class I antigens and host immune effector mechanisms.

Swainsonine, an indolizidine alkaloid, can decrease the organ colonization potential of metastatic murine tumor cells by augmentation of host immune effector mechanisms. In this report the above findings were extended by the demonstration that systemic administration of swainsonine strongly suppressed the growth of human breast carcinoma subcutaneous xenografts and experimentally induced lung metastases. This inhibition was not due to a direct effect of swainsonine on cell growth. However swainsonine treatment of tumor cells resulted in enhanced expression of HLA Class I antigens, and HLA class I mRNA. Swainsonine was a potent immunodulator as evidenced by the increased (a) cytotoxicity of splenocytes and macrophages, and, (b) proliferative potential of splenocytes and bone marrow cells. These data suggest that swainsonine-induced inhibition of tumor growth and metastases may be mediated via activation of host effector cells and/or alteration of tumor cell antigenicity.

Swainsonine modulation of protein kinase C activity in murine peritoneal macrophages.

The level of Ca2+, phospholipid-dependent, protein kinase C (PKC) activity in murine peritoneal macrophages treated with swainsonine, an indolizidine alkaloid, has been investigated. The present studies are based on our recent report that murine peritoneal macrophages are activated by swainsonine (Grzegorzewski, K.; Newton, S.A.; Akiyama, S.K.; Sharrow, S.; Olden, K.; White, S.L., Cancer Commun. 1:373-379, 1989). Presently, we have demonstrated that macrophages treated with swainsonine exhibited a substantial increase in PKC activity. The activity was enhanced as much as 4- to 5-fold over that obtained in untreated macrophages and was inhibited by H-7 (1-[5-isoquinoline sulphonyl]-2-methylpiperazine), D-sphingosine, or a monoclonal antibody specific for the active site of PKC. This represents the first report to demonstrate an effect of swainsonine on a second messenger system known to be involved in tumor promotion and macrophage activation. Elevation of PKC activity occurred much more slowly in swainsonine-treated cells than in cells treated with agents known to activate PKC directly, e.g., PMA (4-beta-phorbol-12-beta-myristate-13-gamma-acetate) or gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma). Furthermore the increase in PKC activity was inhibited by alpha-amanitine and cycloheximide, inhibitors of RNA and protein synthesis, respectively. These results suggest that swainsonine enhancement of PKC activity occurred by an indirect and possibly protein-synthesis-dependent mechanism. Whatever its precise mechanism of action, swainsonine provides a potentially important new probe to evaluate PKC mediated events. Selective enhancement of PKC activity may be important not only in elucidating the role of PKC in tumor promotion or macrophage activation but, also, in contributing to development of therapeutic regimens.

Induction of macrophage tumoricidal activity, major histocompatibility complex class II antigen (Iak) expression, and interleukin-1 production by swainsonine.

Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that the reported antitumor activity of systemically administered swainsonine, an indolizidine alkaloid, is due at least in part to immune modulation involving effector cells (Humphries, M.J.; Matsumoto, K; White, S.L.; Olden, K. Cancer Res. 48:1410-1415; 1988 and White, S. L.; Schweitzer, K.; Humphries, M.J.; Olden, K. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 150:615-625; 1988). In this report, studies are presented to show that swainsonine was effective in activating peritoneal macrophages to cytotoxicity against tumor cells. Stimulation of tumoricidal activity of macrophages was associated with increased secretion of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and expression of the Iak major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigen on the cell surface. The 3-fold stimulation of cytotoxicity observed in these in vivo studies was comparable to that obtained with Corynebacterium parvum, a commonly used in vivo activating agent. The in vitro incubation of thioglycollate-elicited peritoneal macrophages with swainsonine consistently resulted in levels of activation (6- to 8-fold) comparable to that obtained by treatment with known in vitro macrophage activating agents such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or recombinant gamma-interferon (rIFN-gamma). The stimulation observed by using swainsonine in combination with LPS was additive, suggesting different mechanisms of action. These studies have important implications not only for treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and immune suppressive disorders, but also for elucidation of the mechanism of macrophage activation.

Activity of acid phosphatase in resting and mitogen-stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes.

Activity of acid phosphatase was found to be higher in T than in non-T cells of human peripheral blood lymphocytes. The T cell mitogen PHA induced an increase in the magnitude of acid phosphatase activity, while the B cell mitogen LPS was not able to produce any effect on acid phosphatase activity. Acid phosphatase activity in lymphocytes correlated with their spontaneous proliferative activity.

Age-related changes of activity of acid phosphatase in PHA-stimulated lymphocytes.

Peripheral blood lymphocytes of 70-year-old individuals as well as spleen cells of 18-month-old Balb/c mice were characterized by diminished activity of acid phosphatase in relation to the activity of that enzyme in cells from young subjects. Simultaneously performed histochemical tests revealed that aging process in both species examined was accompanied by a reduction of the number of cells, disclosing the activity of acid phosphatase. Age-related differences with regard to the level of acid phosphatase became more pronounced after stimulation of cells with PHA. The decrease of acid phosphatase activity during aging is discussed in relation to the function of lymphocytes.