Rnd3 Expression is Necessary to Maintain Mitochondrial Homeostasis but Dispensable for Autophagy.

Autophagy is a highly conserved process that mediates the targeting and degradation of intracellular components to lysosomes, contributing to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and to obtaining energy, which ensures viability under stress conditions. Therefore, autophagy defects are common to different neurodegenerative disorders. Rnd3 belongs to the family of Rho GTPases, involved in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics and important in the modulation of cellular processes such as migration and proliferation. Murine models have shown that Rnd3 is relevant for the correct development and function of the Central Nervous System and lack of its expression produces several motor alterations and neural development impairment. However, little is known about the molecular events through which Rnd3 produces these phenotypes. Interestingly we have observed that Rnd3 deficiency correlates with the appearance of autophagy impairment profiles and irregular mitochondria. In this work, we have explored the impact of Rnd3 loss of expression in mitochondrial function and autophagy, using a Rnd3 KO CRISPR cell model. Rnd3 deficient cells show no alterations in autophagy and mitochondria turnover is not impaired. However, Rnd3 KO cells have an altered mitochondria oxidative metabolism, resembling the effect caused by oxidative stress. In fact, lack of Rnd3 expression makes these cells strictly dependent on glycolysis to obtain energy. Altogether, our results demonstrate that Rnd3 is relevant to maintain mitochondria function, suggesting a possible relationship with neurodegenerative diseases.

RhoE is required for contact inhibition and negatively regulates tumor initiation and progression.

RhoE is a small GTPase involved in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics, cell cycle and apoptosis. The role of RhoE in cancer is currently controversial, with reports of both oncogenic and tumor-suppressive functions for RhoE. Using RhoE-deficient mice, we show here that the absence of RhoE blunts contact-inhibition of growth by inhibiting p27Kip1 nuclear translocation and cooperates in oncogenic transformation of mouse primary fibroblasts. Heterozygous RhoE+/gt mice are more susceptible to chemically induced skin tumors and RhoE knock-down results in increased metastatic potential of cancer cells. These results indicate that RhoE plays a role in suppressing tumor initiation and progression.

RhoE deficiency alters postnatal subventricular zone development and the number of calbindin-expressing neurons in the olfactory bulb of mouse.

The subventricular zone represents an important reservoir of progenitor cells in the adult brain. Cells from the subventricular zone migrate along the rostral migratory stream and reach the olfactory bulb, where they originate different types of interneurons. In this work, we have analyzed the role of the small GTPase RhoE/Rnd3 in subventricular zone cell development using mice-lacking RhoE expression. Our results show that RhoE null mice display a remarkable postnatal broadening of the subventricular zone and caudal rostral migratory stream. This broadening was caused by an increase in progenitor proliferation, observed in the second postnatal week but not before, and by an altered migration of the cells, which appeared in disorganized cell arrangements that impaired the appropriate contact between cells in the rostral migratory stream. In addition, the thickness of the granule cell layer in the olfactory bulb was reduced, although the density of granule cells did not differ between wild-type and RhoE null mice. Finally, the lack of RhoE expression affected the olfactory glomeruli inducing a severe reduction of calbindin-expressing interneurons in the periglomerular layer. This was already evident in the newborns and even more pronounced 15 days later when RhoE null mice displayed 89% less cells than control mice. Our results indicate that RhoE has pleiotropic functions on subventricular cells because of its role in proliferation and tangential migration, affecting mainly the development of calbindin-expressing cells in the olfactory bulb.

Analysis of RhoE expression in the testis, epididymis and ductus deferens, and the effects of its deficiency in mice.

Rho proteins are a large family of GTPases involved in the control of actin cytoskeleton dynamics, proliferation and survival. Rnd1, Rnd2 and RhoE/Rnd3 form a subfamily of Rho proteins characterized by being constitutively active. The role of these proteins has been studied during the last years in several systems; however, little is known about their expression and functions in the reproductive organs. In this work we analysed the localization and the effect of RhoE deficiency in the testes using mice lacking RhoE expression (RhoE gt/gt), and our research shows some unexpected and relevant results. First, we have observed that RhoE is only expressed in Leydig cells within the testicular parenchyma and it is absent of seminiferous tubules. In addition, RhoE is expressed in the excurrent ducts of the testis, including the ductuli efferentes, epididymis and ductus deferens. Moreover, the testes of postnatal 15-day-old RhoE null mice are smaller, both in absolute values and in relation to the body weight. Furthermore, the dimensions of their seminiferous tubules are also reduced compared with wild-types. In order to study the role of RhoE in the adult, we analysed heterozygous animals as RhoE null mice die early postnatally. Our results show that the testes of adult RhoE heterozygous mice are also smaller than those of the wild-types, with a 17% decrease in the ratio testis weight/body weight. In addition, their seminiferous tubules have reduced tubular diameter (12%) and a thinner epithelial wall (33%) that appears disorganized and with a swollen lumen. Finally, and probably as a consequence of those alterations, the sperm concentration of heterozygous animals was found to be lower than in the wild-types. These results indicate that accurate levels of RhoE in the testes are necessary for a correct development and function of male gonads, and suggest novel and unexpected roles of Rnd GTPases in the reproductive physiology.

Comparative transcriptomics reveals RhoE as a novel regulator of actin dynamics in bone-resorbing osteoclasts.

The function of osteoclasts (OCs), multinucleated giant cells (MGCs) of the monocytic lineage, is bone resorption. To resorb bone, OCs form podosomes. These are actin-rich adhesive structures that pattern into rings that drive OC migration and into "sealing-zones" (SZs) that confine the resorption lacuna. Although changes in actin dynamics during podosome patterning have been documented, the mechanisms that regulate these changes are largely unknown. From human monocytic precursors, we differentiated MGCs that express OC degradation enzymes but are unable to resorb the mineral matrix. We demonstrated that, despite exhibiting bona fide podosomes, these cells presented dysfunctional SZs. We then performed two-step differential transcriptomic profiling of bone-resorbing OCs versus nonresorbing MGCs to generate a list of genes implicated in bone resorption. From this list of candidate genes, we investigated the role of Rho/Rnd3. Using primary RhoE-deficient OCs, we demonstrated that RhoE is indispensable for OC migration and bone resorption by maintaining fast actin turnover in podosomes. We further showed that RhoE activates podosome component cofilin by inhibiting its Rock-mediated phosphorylation. We conclude that the RhoE-Rock-cofilin pathway, by promoting podosome dynamics and patterning, is central for OC migration, SZ formation, and, ultimately, bone resorption.

The Rho family member RhoE interacts with Skp2 and is degraded at the proteasome during cell cycle progression.

RhoE/Rnd3 is an atypical member of the Rho family of small GTPases. In addition to regulating actin cytoskeleton dynamics, RhoE is involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, survival, and metastasis. We examined RhoE expression levels during cell cycle and investigated mechanisms controlling them. We show that RhoE accumulates during G1, in contact-inhibited cells, and when the Akt pathway is inhibited. Conversely, RhoE levels rapidly decrease at the G1/S transition and remain low for most of the cell cycle. We also show that the half-life of RhoE is shorter than that of other Rho proteins and that its expression levels are regulated by proteasomal degradation. The expression patterns of RhoE overlap with that of the cell cycle inhibitor p27. Consistently with an involvement of RhoE in cell cycle regulation, RhoE and p27 levels decrease after overexpression of the F-box protein Skp2. We have identified a region between amino acids 231 and 240 of RhoE as the Skp2-interacting domain and Lys(235) as the substrate for ubiquitylation. Based on our results, we propose a mechanism according to which proteasomal degradation of RhoE by Skp2 regulates its protein levels to control cellular proliferation.

Neuronal polarization is impaired in mice lacking RhoE expression.

Proper development of neuronal networks relies on the polarization of the neurons, thus the establishment of two compartments, axons and dendrites, whose formation depends on cytoskeletal rearrangements. Rnd proteins are regulators of actin organization and they are important players in several aspects of brain development as neurite formation, axon guidance and neuron migration. We have recently demonstrated that mice lacking RhoE/Rnd3 expression die shortly after birth and have neuromotor impairment and neuromuscular alterations, indicating an abnormal development of the nervous system. In this study, we have further investigated the specific role played by RhoE in several aspects of neuronal development by using hippocampal neuron cultures. Our findings show that neurons from a mice lacking RhoE expression exhibit a decrease in the number and the total length of the neurites. We also show that RhoE-deficient neurons display a reduction in axon outgrowth and a delay in the process of neuronal polarization. In addition, our results suggest an involvement of the RHOA/ROCK/LIMK/COFILIN signaling pathway in the neuronal alterations induced by the lack of RhoE. These findings support our previous report revealing the important role of RhoE in the normal development of the nervous system and may provide novel therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders.

RhoE deficiency produces postnatal lethality, profound motor deficits and neurodevelopmental delay in mice.

Rnd proteins are a subfamily of Rho GTPases involved in the control of actin cytoskeleton dynamics and other cell functions such as motility, proliferation and survival. Unlike other members of the Rho family, Rnd proteins lack GTPase activity and therefore remain constitutively active. We have recently described that RhoE/Rnd3 is expressed in the Central Nervous System and that it has a role in promoting neurite formation. Despite their possible relevance during development, the role of Rnd proteins in vivo is not known. To get insight into the in vivo function of RhoE we have generated mice lacking RhoE expression by an exon trapping cassette. RhoE null mice (RhoE gt/gt) are smaller at birth, display growth retardation and early postnatal death since only half of RhoE gt/gt mice survive beyond postnatal day (PD) 15 and 100% are dead by PD 29. RhoE gt/gt mice show an abnormal body position with profound motor impairment and impaired performance in most neurobehavioral tests. Null mutant mice are hypoactive, show an immature locomotor pattern and display a significant delay in the appearance of the hindlimb mature responses. Moreover, they perform worse than the control littermates in the wire suspension, vertical climbing and clinging, righting reflex and negative geotaxis tests. Also, RhoE ablation results in a delay of neuromuscular maturation and in a reduction in the number of spinal motor neurons. Finally, RhoE gt/gt mice lack the common peroneal nerve and, consequently, show a complete atrophy of the target muscles. This is the first model to study the in vivo functions of a member of the Rnd subfamily of proteins, revealing the important role of Rnd3/RhoE in the normal development and suggesting the possible involvement of this protein in neurological disorders.

RhoE stimulates neurite-like outgrowth in PC12 cells through inhibition of the RhoA/ROCK-I signalling.

Neurite formation involves coordinated changes between the actin cytoskeleton and the microtubule network. Rho GTPases are clearly implicated in several aspects of neuronal development and function. Indeed, RhoA is a negative regulator of neurite outgrowth and its effector Rho-kinase mediates the Rho-driven neurite retraction. Considering that RhoE/round protein (Rnd3) acts antagonistically to RhoA and it is also able to bind and inhibit rho kinase-I (p160ROCK) - ROCK-I, it is tempting to speculate a role of RhoE in neurite formation. We show for the first time that, in the absence of nerve growth factor (NGF), RhoE induces neurite-like outgrowth. Our results demonstrate that over-expression of RhoE decreases the activity of RhoA and reduces the expression of both ROCK-I and the phosphorylated myosin light chain phosphatase (MLCPp). Conversely, over-expression of either active RhoA or ROCK-I abolishes the RhoE-promoted neurite outgrowth, suggesting that RhoE induces neurite-like formation through inhibition of the RhoA/ROCK-I signalling. We also show that Rac and Cdc42 have a role in RhoE-induced neurite outgrowth. Finally, the present data further indicate that RhoE may be involved in the NGF-induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells, as depletion of RhoE by siRNA reduces the neurite formation induced by NGF. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanism implicated in neuronal development and may provide novel therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders.

RhoE participates in the stimulation of the inflammatory response induced by ethanol in astrocytes.

Astroglial cells are involved in the neuropathogenesis of several inflammatory diseases of the brain, where the activation of inflammatory mediators and cytokines plays an important role. We have previously demonstrated that ethanol up-regulates inflammatory mediators in both brain and astroglial cells. Since Rho GTPases are involved in inflammatory responses of astrocytes where loss of stress fibers takes place and RhoE/Rnd3 disorganizes the actin cytoskeleton, the aim of the present study was to investigate the implication of this protein in the stimulation of inflammatory signaling induced by ethanol. Our findings show that RhoE expression induces a decrease in both RhoA and Rac. In addition, RhoE not only induces actin cytoskeleton disorganization but it also stimulates both the IRAK/ERK/NF-kappaB pathway and the COX-2 expression associated with the inflammatory response in these cells. Our results also show that ethanol exposure induces RhoE signaling in astrocytes. Preincubation of astrocytes with GF109203X, an inhibitor of PKCs, reduces the RhoE levels and abolishes the ethanol-induced activation of IRAK, NF-kappaB and the COX-2 expression. Furthermore, RhoE overexpression restores ethanol responses in astrocytes treated with the PKCs inhibitor. Altogether, our findings suggest that this small GTPase is involved in the stimulation of the inflammatory signaling induced by ethanol in astrocytes. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanism involved in the inflammatory responses in astrocytes.

RhoE interferes with Rb inactivation and regulates the proliferation and survival of the U87 human glioblastoma cell line.

Rho GTPases are important regulators of actin cytoskeleton, but they are also involved in cell proliferation, transformation and oncogenesis. One of this proteins, RhoE, inhibits cell proliferation, however the mechanism that regulates this effect remains poorly understood. Therefore, we undertook the present study to determine the role of RhoE in the regulation of cell proliferation. For this purpose we generated an adenovirus system to overexpress RhoE in U87 glioblastoma cells. Our results show that RhoE disrupts actin cytoskeleton organization and inhibits U87 glioblastoma cell proliferation. Importantly, RhoE expressing cells show a reduction in Rb phosphorylation and in cyclin D1 expression. Furthermore, RhoE inhibits ERK activation following serum stimulation of quiescent cells. Based in these findings, we propose that RhoE inhibits ERK activation, thereby decreasing cyclin D1 expression and leading to a reduction in Rb inactivation, and that this mechanism is involved in the RhoE-induced cell growth inhibition. Moreover, we also demonstrate that RhoE induces apoptosis in U87 cells and also in colon carcinoma and melanoma cells. These results indicate that RhoE plays an important role in the regulation of cell proliferation and survival, and suggest that this protein may be considered as an oncosupressor since it is capable to induce apoptosis in several tumor cell lines.

The RhoA/ROCK-I/MLC pathway is involved in the ethanol-induced apoptosis by anoikis in astrocytes.

Anoikis is a programmed cell death induced by loss of anchorage that is involved in tissue homeostasis and disease. Ethanol is an important teratogen that induces marked central nervous system (CNS) dysfunctions. Here we show that astrocytes exposed to ethanol undergo morphological changes associated with anoikis, including the peripheral reorganization of both focal adhesions and actin-myosin system, cell contraction, membrane blebbing and chromatin condensation. We found that either the small GTPase RhoA or its effector ROCK-I (Rho kinase), promotes membrane blebbing in astrocytes. Ethanol induces a ROCK-I activation that is mediated by RhoA, rather than by caspase-3 cleavage. Accordingly, the RhoA inhibitor C3, completely abolishes the ethanol-induced ROCK-I activation. Furthermore, inhibition of both RhoA and ROCK prevents the membrane blebbing induced by ethanol. Ethanol also promotes myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation, which might be involved in the actin-myosin contraction. All of these findings strongly support that ethanol-exposed astrocytes undergo apoptosis by anoikis and also that the RhoA/ROCK-I/MLC pathway participates in this process.

RhoE inhibits cell cycle progression and Ras-induced transformation.

Rho GTPases are major regulators of cytoskeletal dynamics, but they also affect cell proliferation, transformation, and oncogenesis. RhoE, a member of the Rnd subfamily that does not detectably hydrolyze GTP, inhibits RhoA/ROCK signaling to promote actin stress fiber and focal adhesion disassembly. We have generated fibroblasts with inducible RhoE expression to investigate the role of RhoE in cell proliferation. RhoE expression induced a loss of stress fibers and cell rounding, but these effects were only transient. RhoE induction inhibited cell proliferation and serum-induced S-phase entry. Neither ROCK nor RhoA inhibition accounted for this response. Consistent with its inhibitory effect on cell cycle progression, RhoE expression was induced by cisplatin, a DNA damage-inducing agent. RhoE-expressing cells failed to accumulate cyclin D1 or p21(cip1) protein or to activate E2F-regulated genes in response to serum, although ERK, PI3-K/Akt, FAK, Rac, and cyclin D1 transcription was activated normally. The expression of proteins that bypass the retinoblastoma (pRb) family cell cycle checkpoint, including human papillomavirus E7, adenovirus E1A, and cyclin E, rescued cell cycle progression in RhoE-expressing cells. RhoE also inhibited Ras- and Raf-induced fibroblast transformation. These results indicate that RhoE inhibits cell cycle progression upstream of the pRb checkpoint.

RhoE binds to ROCK I and inhibits downstream signaling.

RhoE belongs to the Rho GTPase family, the members of which control actin cytoskeletal dynamics. RhoE induces stress fiber disassembly in a variety of cell types, whereas RhoA stimulates stress fiber assembly. The similarity of RhoE and RhoA sequences suggested that RhoE might compete with RhoA for interaction with its targets. Here, we show that RhoE binds ROCK I but none of the other RhoA targets tested. The interaction of RhoE with ROCK I was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation of the endogenous proteins, and the two proteins colocalized on the trans-Golgi network in COS-7 cells. Although RhoE and RhoA were not able to bind ROCK I simultaneously, RhoE bound to the amino-terminal region of ROCK I encompassing the kinase domain, at a site distant from the carboxy-terminal RhoA-binding site. Overexpression of RhoE inhibited ROCK I-induced stress fiber formation and phosphorylation of the ROCK I target myosin light chain phosphatase. These data suggest that RhoE induces stress fiber disassembly by directly binding ROCK I and inhibiting it from phosphorylating downstream targets.