Dietary intake from complementary feeding is associated with intestinal barrier function and environmental enteropathy in Brazilian children from the MAL-ED cohort study.

A child's diet contains nutrients and other substances that influence intestinal health. The present study aimed to evaluate the relations between complementary feeding, intestinal barrier function and environmental enteropathy (EE) in infants. Data from 233 children were obtained from the Brazilian site of the Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development Project cohort study. Habitual dietary intake from complementary feeding was estimated using seven 24-h dietary recalls, from 9 to 15 months of age. Intestinal barrier function was assessed using the lactulose-mannitol test (L-M), and EE was determined as a composite measure using faecal biomarkers concentrations - α-1-antitrypsin, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and neopterin (NEO) at 15 months of age. The nutrient adequacies explored the associations between dietary intake and the intestinal biomarkers. Children showed adequate nutrient intakes (with the exception of fibre), impaired intestinal barrier function and intestinal inflammation. There was a negative correlation between energy adequacy and L-M (ρ = -0·19, P < 0·05) and between folate adequacy and NEO concentrations (ρ = -0·21, P < 0·01). In addition, there was a positive correlation between thiamine adequacy and MPO concentration (ρ = 0·22, P < 0·01) and between Ca adequacy and NEO concentration (ρ = 0·23; P < 0·01). Multiple linear regression models showed that energy intakes were inversely associated with intestinal barrier function (ß = -0·19, P = 0·02), and fibre intake was inversely associated with the EE scores (ß = -0·20, P = 0·04). Findings suggest that dietary intake from complementary feeding is associated with decreased intestinal barrier function and EE in children.

Infant feeding practices and determinant variables for early complementary feeding in the first 8 months of life: results from the Brazilian MAL-ED cohort site.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to describe breast-feeding, complementary feeding and determining factors for early complementary feeding from birth to 8 months of age in a typical Brazilian low-income urban community. DESIGN: A birth cohort was conducted (n 233), with data collection twice weekly, allowing close observation of breast-feeding, complementary feeding introduction and description of the WHO core indicators on infant and young child feeding. Infant feeding practices were related to socio-economic status (SES), assessed by Water/sanitation, wealth measured by a set of eight Assets, Maternal education and monthly household Income (WAMI index). Two logistic regression models were constructed to evaluate risk factors associated with early complementary feeding. RESULTS: Based on twice weekly follow-up, 65 % of the children received exclusive breast-feeding in the first month of life and 5 % in the sixth month. Complementary feeding was offered in the first month: 29 % of the children received water, 15 % infant formulas, 13 % other milks and 9·4 % grain-derived foods. At 6 months, dietary diversity and minimum acceptable diet were both 47 % and these increased to 69 % at 8 months. No breast-feeding within the first hour of birth was a risk factor for the early introduction of water (adjusted OR=4·68; 95 % CI 1·33, 16·47) and low WAMI index a risk factor for the early introduction of other milks (adjusted OR=0·00; 95 % CI 0·00, 0·02). CONCLUSIONS: Data suggest local policies should promote: (i) early breast-feeding initiation; (ii) SES, considering maternal education, income and household conditions; (iii) timely introduction of complementary feeding; and (iv) dietary diversity.

Critical Role of Zinc in a New Murine Model of Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Diarrhea.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of traveler's diarrhea as well as of endemic diarrhea and stunting in children in developing areas. However, a small-mammal model has been badly needed to better understand and assess mechanisms, vaccines, and interventions. We report a murine model of ETEC diarrhea, weight loss, and enteropathy and investigate the role of zinc in the outcomes. ETEC strains producing heat-labile toxins (LT) and heat-stable toxins (ST) that were given to weaned C57BL/6 mice after antibiotic disruption of normal microbiota caused growth impairment, watery diarrhea, heavy stool shedding, and mild to moderate intestinal inflammation, the latter being worse with zinc deficiency. Zinc treatment promoted growth in zinc-deficient infected mice, and subinhibitory levels of zinc reduced expression of ETEC virulence genes cfa1, cexE, sta2, and degP but not of eltA in vitro Zinc supplementation increased shedding and the ileal burden of wild-type (WT) ETEC but decreased shedding and the tissue burden of LT knockout (LTKO) ETEC. LTKO ETEC-infected mice had delayed disease onset and also had less inflammation by fecal myeloperoxidase (MPO) assessment. These findings provide a new murine model of ETEC infection that can help elucidate mechanisms of growth, diarrhea, and inflammatory responses as well as potential vaccines and interventions.

Antibiotic resistance patterns and beta-lactamase identification in Escherichia coli isolated from young children in rural Limpopo Province, South Africa: The MAL-ED cohort.

BACKGROUND: Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem worldwide. Mechanisms of resistance vary, and some can confer resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics. OBJECTIVE: To characterise the antibiotic resistance profiles of Escherichia coli isolates obtained from stool samples of young rural children exposed or unexposed to antibiotics. METHODOLOGY: The samples were collected from children aged 4 - 12 months who were participants in the Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development (MAL-ED) project at the South Africa research site. We isolated 87 E. coli samples (clones) from 65 individual participants, all of which were subjected to disc diffusion assay to determine resistance. We characterised the minimum inhibitory concentration of antibiotics in a subset of strains as well as the mechanism by which these strains were resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics. RESULTS: Our results revealed high resistance rates to co-trimoxazole (54.0%), penicillin (47.1%) and tetracycline (44.8%) in our isolates, and indicated that the beta-lactamase TEM-1 is a prevalent source of beta-lactam resistance. We also identified two isolates with the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase CTX-M-14. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified antibiotic-resistant E. coli in children with and without prior exposure to antibiotics, with some isolates showing resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics. Clinicians should bear in mind that transmission of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-resistant E. coli exists at the community level, and that children as young as 2 years may be harbouring these resistant phenotypes.

Antibiotic resistance patterns and beta-lactamase identification in Escherichia coli isolated from young children in rural Limpopo Province, South Africa: The MAL-ED cohort

Background. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem worldwide. Mechanisms of resistance vary, and some can confer resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics.Objective. To characterise the antibiotic resistance profiles of Escherichia coli isolates obtained from stool samples of young rural children exposed or unexposed to antibiotics. Methodology. The samples were collected from children aged 4 - 12 months who were participants in the Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development (MAL-ED) project at the South Africa research site. We isolated 87 E. coli samples (clones) from 65 individual participants, all of which were subjected to disc diffusion assay to determine resistance. We characterised the minimum inhibitory concentration of antibiotics in a subset of strains as well as the mechanism by which these strains were resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics.Results. Our results revealed high resistance rates to co-trimoxazole (54.0%), penicillin (47.1%) and tetracycline (44.8%) in our isolates, and indicated that the beta-lactamase TEM-1 is a prevalent source of beta-lactam resistance. We also identified two isolates with the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase CTX-M-14.Conclusions. This study identified antibiotic-resistant E. coli in children with and without prior exposure to antibiotics, with some isolates showing resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics. Clinicians should bear in mind that transmission of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-resistant E. coli exists at the community level, and that children as young as 2 years may be harbouring these resistant phenotypes

Comparisons between myeloperoxidase, lactoferrin, calprotectin and lipocalin-2, as fecal biomarkers of intestinal inflammation in malnourished children.

Fecal biomarkers have emerged as important tools to assess intestinal inflammation and enteropathy. The aim of this study was to investigate the correlations between the fecal markers, myeloperoxidase (MPO), lactoferrin (FL), calprotectin (FC) and lipocalin-2 (Lcn-2), and to compare differences by breastfeeding status as well as normalization by fecal protein or by fecal weight. Simultaneous, quantitative MPO, FL, FC and Lcn-2, levels were determined in frozen fecal specimens collected from 78 children (mean age 15.2 ± 5.3 months) in a case-control study of childhood malnutrition in Brazil. The biomarker concentrations were measured by enzymelinked immunosorbent assay. The correlations among all biomarkers were significant (P<0.01). There were stronger correlations of fecal MPO with fecal lactoferrin and calprotectin, with lower, but still highly significant correlations of all 3 inflammatory biomarkers with Lcn-2 likely because the latter may also reflect enterocyte damage as well as neutrophil presence. Furthermore, the biomarker results with protein normalized compared to simple fecal weight normalized values showed only a slightly better correlation suggesting that the added cost and time for protein normalization added little to carefully measured fecal weights as denominators. In conclusion, fecal MPO correlates tightly with fecal lactoferrin and calprotectin irrespective of breastfeeding status and provides a common, available biomarker for comparison of human and animal model studies.

Protein Malnutrition Impairs Intestinal Epithelial Cell Turnover, a Potential Mechanism of Increased Cryptosporidiosis in a Murine Model.

Malnutrition and cryptosporidiosis form a vicious cycle and lead to acute and long-term growth impairment in children from developing countries. Insights into mechanisms underlying the vicious cycle will help to design rational therapies to mitigate this infection. We tested the effect of short-term protein malnutrition on Cryptosporidium parvum infection in a murine model by examining stool shedding, tissue burden, and histologic change and explored the mechanism underlying the interaction between malnutrition and cryptosporidiosis through immunostaining and immunoblotting. Protein malnutrition increased stool shedding and the number of intestine-associated C. parvum organisms, accompanied by significant suppression of C. parvum-induced caspase 3 activity and expression of PCNA and Ki67, but activation of the Akt survival pathway in intestinal epithelial cells. We find that even very brief periods of protein malnutrition may enhance (or intensify) cryptosporidiosis by suppressing C. parvum-induced cell turnover and caspase-dependent apoptosis of intestinal epithelial cells. This implicates a potential strategy to attenuate C. parvum's effects by modulating apoptosis and promoting regeneration in the intestinal epithelium.

Vitamin-D status is not a confounder of the relationship between zinc and diarrhoea: a study in 6-24-month-old underweight and normal-weight children of urban Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The role of micronutrients particularly zinc in childhood diarrhoea is well established. Immunomodulatory functions of vitamin-D in diarrhoea and its role in the effect of other micronutrients are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate whether vitamin-D directly associated or confounded the association between other micronutrient status and diarrhoeal incidence and severity in 6-24-month underweight and normal-weight children in urban Bangladesh. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Multivariable generalised estimating equations were used to estimate incidence rate ratios for incidence (Poisson) and severity (binomial) of diarrhoea on cohorts of 446 normal-weight and 466 underweight children. Outcomes of interest included incidence and severity of diarrhoea, measured daily during a follow-up period of 5 months. The exposure of interest was vitamin-D status at enrolment. RESULTS: Normal-weight and underweight children contributed 62 117 and 62 967 day observation, with 14.2 and 12.8 days/child/year of diarrhoea, respectively. None of the models showed significant associations of vitamin-D status with diarrhoeal morbidity. In the final model, zinc-insufficient normal-weight children had 1.3 times more days of diarrhoea than sufficient children (P<0.05). Again zinc insufficiency and mother's education (1-5 and >5 years) had 1.8 and 2.3 times more risk of severe diarrhoea. In underweight children, older age and female had 24-63 and 17% fewer days of diarrhoea and 52-54 and 31% fewer chances of severe diarrhoea. CONCLUSION: Vitamin-D status was not associated with incidence and severity of diarrhoea in study children. Role of zinc in diarrhoea was only evident in normal-weight children. Our findings demonstrate that vitamin-D is not a confounder of the relationship between zinc and diarrhoea.

Clostridium difficile ribotype 027 is most prevalent among inpatients admitted from long-term care facilities.

Intestinal inflammation was evaluated using faecal lactoferrin and ribotype in 196 hospitalized adults with Clostridium difficile infection to determine the impact of ribotype 027 in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). LTCF residents (n=28) had greater antibiotic use (P=0.049) and more ribotype 027 infection [odds ratio (OR): 4.87; 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.02-11.74; P<0.01], compared to those admitted from home. Patients infected with ribotype 027 strains had worse six-month mortality (OR: 1.90; 95% CI: 1.08-3.34; P=0.03) and more inflammation (95.26 vs 36.08 µg/mL; P=0.006), compared to those infected with non-027 strains. This study was not designed to determine acquisition site, but, in this population, suggests that the location from which the patient has been admitted is strongly associated with ribotype 027 and more severe C. difficile disease.

Ribotype 027 Clostridium difficile infections with measurable stool toxin have increased lactoferrin and are associated with a higher mortality.

We evaluated clinical and diagnostic indicators of severe C. difficile infection (CDI) and their association with poor clinical outcome. A total of 210 patients positive according to PCR (toxin B: tcdB) were included, with patients having a median age of 62 years and a Charlson co-morbidity index (CI) score of 5. Ninety-one percent (n = 191) were positive by toxigenic culture and 61% (n = 129) had stool toxin. Toxin-positive patients had significantly higher fecal lactoferrin (mean 316 µg/g versus 106 µg/g stool; p < 0.0001). Forty percent of patients (n = 85) were infected with ribotype 027 and significantly more of these patients had measurable stool toxin (79% vs. 50%; p < 0.0001). The mean fecal lactoferrin was significantly higher for toxin-positive 027 CDI compared with the 027 toxin-negative group (317 vs 60 µg/g; p = 0.0014). Ribotype 027 CDI with stool toxin showed a higher all-cause, 100-day mortality compared with non-027 with stool toxin (36 % vs 18%; p = 0.017). Logistic regression univariate analysis for odds ratio (OR) and p values revealed that age (OR = 1.1), intensive care unit treatment (OR = 2.7), CI (OR = 1.2), 027 CDI (OR = 2.1), white blood cell count (OR = 1.0), albumin level (OR = 0.1), and stool toxin-positive 027 CDI (OR = 2.5) were significantly associated with 100-day mortality (p < 0.05). In conclusion, CDI PCR-positive patients with 027 infection and stool toxin have increased lactoferrin and are at an increased risk of death.

Murine model of Clostridium difficile infection with aged gnotobiotic C57BL/6 mice and a BI/NAP1 strain.

The increased incidence and severity of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in older adults (age, ≥65 years) corresponds with the emergence of the BI/NAP1 strain, making elucidation of the host immune response extremely important. We therefore infected germ-free C57BL/6 mice aged 7-14 months with a BI/NAP1 strain and monitored the mice for response. Infected mice were moribund 48-72 h after infection and developed gross and histological cecitis and colitis and elevated concentrations of keratinocyte chemoattractant, interleukin 1ß, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and decreased levels of interferon γ, interleukin 12 p40, interleukin 12 p70, and interleukin 10 compared with controls. We conclude that aged, germ-free C57BL/6 mice are susceptible to fulminant CDI from a BI/NAP1 strain and represent a novel model to further elucidate the host immune response to acute CDI.

ApoE polymorphisms and diarrheal outcomes in Brazilian shanty town children.

A series of studies have shown that the heavy burdens of diarrheal diseases in the first 2 formative years of life in children living in urban shanty towns have negative effects on physical and cognitive development lasting into later childhood. We have shown that APOE4 is relatively common in shanty town children living in Brazil (13.4%) and suggest that APOE4 has a protective role in cognitive development as well as weight-for-height in children with heavy burdens of diarrhea in early childhood (64/123; 52%), despite being a marker for cognitive decline with Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases later in life. APOE2 frequency was higher among children with heaviest diarrhea burdens during the first 2 years of life, as detected by PCR using the restriction fragment length polymorphism method, raising the possibility that ApoE-cholesterol balance might be critical for growth and cognitive development under the stress of heavy diarrhea burdens and when an enriched fat diet is insufficient. These findings provide a potential explanation for the survival advantage in evolution of genes, which might raise cholesterol levels during heavy stress of diarrhea burdens and malnutrition early in life.

ApoE polymorphisms and diarrheal outcomes in Brazilian shanty town children

A series of studies have shown that the heavy burdens of diarrheal diseases in the first 2 formative years of life in children living in urban shanty towns have negative effects on physical and cognitive development lasting into later childhood. We have shown that APOE4 is relatively common in shanty town children living in Brazil (13.4 percent) and suggest that APOE4 has a protective role in cognitive development as well as weight-for-height in children with heavy burdens of diarrhea in early childhood (64/123; 52 percent), despite being a marker for cognitive decline with Alzheimer’s and cardiovascular diseases later in life. APOE2 frequency was higher among children with heaviest diarrhea burdens during the first 2 years of life, as detected by PCR using the restriction fragment length polymorphism method, raising the possibility that ApoE-cholesterol balance might be critical for growth and cognitive development under the stress of heavy diarrhea burdens and when an enriched fat diet is insufficient. These findings provide a potential explanation for the survival advantage in evolution of genes, which might raise cholesterol levels during heavy stress of diarrhea burdens and malnutrition early in life.

Seroprevalence of Entamoeba histolytica in the context of HIV and AIDS: the case of Vhembe district, in South Africa's Limpopo province.

In a recent study in northern South Africa, the seroprevalence of Entamoeba histolytica infection among 257 HIV-positive and 117 HIV-negative individuals was determined, using an ELISA for the detection of antibodies reacting with the parasite's galactose/-acetyl-D-galactosamine(Gal/GalNAc)-inhibitable adherence lectin. Overall, 34.0% of the 374 participants (36.1% of the females and 28.1% of the males) were found seropositive for E. histolytica. Although all age-groups were affected by the amoebic pathogen, the subjects aged 50-59 years had the highest seroprevalence (69.2%). The seroprevalence of E. histolytica was also significantly higher among the HIV-positive subjects than among the HIV-negative (42.8% v. 14.5%; chi(2)=28.65; P<0.0001). Among the HIV-positive subjects, those with fewer than 200 CD4+ cells/microl were relatively more likely to be seropositive for E. histolytica (60.3% v. 43.8%; chi(2)=4.016; P=0.045). This is the first report indicating a positive association between E. histolytica infection and HIV in South Africa. Further studies, for example to determine the occurrence of diarrhoea or liver abscess in the study area, in relation to seropositivity for E. histolytica and/or HIV, are now needed.

Prevalence of intestinal parasitic and bacterial pathogens in diarrhoeal and non-diarroeal human stools from Vhembe district, South Africa.

In the present study, a cross-sectional survey of intestinal parasitic and bacterial infections in relation to diarrhoea in Vhembe district and the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of isolated bacterial pathogens was conducted. Stool samples were collected from 528 patients attending major public hospitals and 295 children attending two public primary schools and were analyzed by standard microbiological and parasitological techniques. Entamoeba histolytica/E. dispar (34.2%) and Cryptosporidium spp. (25.5%) were the most common parasitic causes of diarrhoea among the hospital attendees while Giardia lamblia (12.8%) was the most common cause of diarrhoea among the primary school children (p < 0.05). Schistosoma mansoni (14.4%) was more common in non-diarrhoeal samples at both hospitals (16.9%) and schools (17.6%). Campylobacter spp. (24.9%), Aeromonas spp. (20.8%), and Shigella spp. (8.5%) were the most common bacterial causes of diarrhoea among the hospital attendees while Campylobacter (12.8%) and Aeromonas spp. (12.8%) were most common in diarrhoeal samples from school children. Vibrio spp. was less common (3% in the hospitals) and were all associated with diarrhoea. Antimicrobial resistance was common among the bacterial isolates but ceftriaxone (91%) and ciprofloxacin (88.6%) showed stronger activities against all the organisms. The present study has demonstrated that E. histolytica/dispar, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Cyclospora are common parasitic causes of diarrhoea in Vhembe district while Campylobacter spp. and Aeromonas are the most common bacterial causes of diarrhoea in Vhembe district of South Africa.

Entamoeba histolytica: genetic diversity of African strains based on the polymorphism of the serine-rich protein gene.

The polymorphism of the serine-rich Entamoeba histolytica protein (SREHP) among isolates obtained from different geographic regions was analyzed by a nested PCR followed by restriction analysis. Thirteen different profiles were generated from 23 E. histolytica isolates from Cameroon, Zimbabwe and South Africa while 20 others were generated from 38 E. histolytica PCR positive stool samples from South Africa. One of the profiles was common to isolates from Cameroon, Zimbabwe and South Africa and constituted the most prevalent (26.1%) of all the profiles. However, profiles unique to each country were also observed amongst the samples. A non-significant difference was observed between isolates from diarrheic and non-diarrheic samples. Of interest, of the five HIV positive stool samples three had the same profile indicating the possibility that some E. histolytica strains might be more common/pathogenic in immuno-compromised individuals. The results obtained showed that African isolates of E. histolytica may possess extremely complex genetic structures independent of geographic location. This study indicates that certain profiles might be responsible for the presentation of intestinal amoebic symptoms. However, more extended studies need to be performed in order to confirm these observations.

Microsporidiosis in South Africa: PCR detection in stool samples of HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals and school children in Vhembe district, Limpopo Province.

Microsporidia were initially recognized as pathogens of insects and fish but have recently emerged as an important group of human pathogens, especially in immune-compromised individuals, such as those with HIV infection. In this study, we used a PCR-RFLP assay confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR and trichrome staining to determine the prevalence of microsporidian infections among hospital patients and school children in Vhembe region. Enterocytozoon bieneusi was the only microsporidian species detected in these stool samples. It was found in 33 (12.9%) of 255 samples from the hospitals and in 3 (4.5%) of 67 samples from primary school children and was significantly associated (P=0.039) with diarrhea in HIV-positive patients (21.6%) compared to HIV-negative individuals (9%). However, microsporidian infections were not associated with intestinal inflammation as indicated by the lactoferrin test. These results suggest that microsporidia might be a cause of secretory diarrhea in HIV-positive patients. To our knowledge, this is the first report of E. bieneusi in the Vhembe region of South Africa. Further investigations are needed in order to clarify the pathogenesis of E. bieneusi in HIV-positive patients.