Racial and Ethnic Concordance Between the Patient and Anesthesia Team and Patients' Satisfaction With Pain Management During Cesarean Delivery.

BACKGROUND: Racial and ethnic concordance between patients and health care providers increases patient satisfaction but has not been examined in obstetric anesthesia care. This study evaluated the association between racial and ethnic concordance and satisfaction with management of pain during cesarean delivery (PDCD). METHODS: This was a secondary analysis on a cohort of patients undergoing cesarean deliveries under neuraxial anesthesia that examined PDCD. The outcome was satisfaction, recorded within 48 hours after delivery using the survey question, "Overall, how satisfied are you with the anesthesia care during the C-section as it relates to pain management?" Using a 5-point Likert scale, satisfaction was defined with the answer "very satisfied." Participants were also asked, "If you have another C-section, would you want the same anesthesia team?" The exposure was racial and ethnic concordance between the patient and anesthesia team members (attending with a resident, nurse anesthetist, or fellow) categorized into full concordance, partial concordance, discordance, and missing. Risk factors for satisfaction were identified using a multivariable analysis. RESULTS: Among 403 participants, 305 (78.2%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 73.8-82.1) were "very satisfied," and 358 of 399 (89.7%; 95% CI, 86.3-92.5) "would want the same anesthesia team." Full concordance occurred in 18 (4.5%) cases, partial concordance in 117 (29.0%), discordance in 175 (43.4%), and missing in 93 (23.1%). Satisfaction rate was 88.9% for full concordance, 71.8% for partial concordance, 81.1% for discordance, and 78.5% for missing (P value = .202). In the multivariable analysis, there was insufficient evidence for an association of concordance with satisfaction. Compared to full concordance, partial concordance was associated with a nonsignificant 57% (95% CI, -113 to 91) decrease in the odds of being satisfied, discordance with a 29% (95% CI, -251 to 85) decrease, and missing with a 39% (95% CI, -210 to 88) decrease. Risk factors for not being "very satisfied" were PDCD, anxiety disorders, pregnancy resulting from in vitro fertilization, intravenous medication administration, intrapartum cesarean with extension of labor epidural, having 3 anesthesia team members (instead of 2), and a higher intraoperative blood loss. CONCLUSIONS: Our inability to identify an association between concordance and satisfaction is likely due to the high satisfaction rate in our cohort (78.2%), combined with low proportion of full concordance (4.5%). Addressing elements such as PDCD, anxiety, intravenous medication administration, and use of epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery, and a better understanding of the interplay between concordance and satisfaction are warranted.

Structural Racism and Use of Labor Neuraxial Analgesia Among Non-Hispanic Black Birthing People.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the association between structural racism and labor neuraxial analgesia use. METHODS: This cross-sectional study analyzed 2017 U.S. natality data for non-Hispanic Black and White birthing people. The exposure was a multidimensional structural racism index measured in the county of the delivery hospital. It was calculated as the mean of three Black-White inequity ratios (ratios for lower education, unemployment, and incarceration in jails) and categorized into terciles, with the third tercile corresponding to high structural racism. The outcome was the labor neuraxial analgesia rate. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% CIs of neuraxial analgesia associated with terciles of the index were estimated with multivariate logistic regression models. Black and White people were compared with the use of an interaction term between race and ethnicity and the racism index. RESULTS: Of the 1,740,716 birth certificates analyzed, 396,303 (22.8%) were for Black people. The labor neuraxial analgesia rate was 77.2% for Black people in the first tercile of the racism index, 74.7% in the second tercile, and 72.4% in the third tercile. For White people, the rates were 80.4%, 78.2%, and 78.2%, respectively. For Black people, compared with the first tercile of the racism index, the second tercile was associated with 18.4% (95% CI, 16.9-19.9%) decreased adjusted odds of receiving neuraxial analgesia and the third tercile with 28.3% (95% CI, 26.9-29.6%) decreased adjusted odds. For White people, the decreases were 13.4% (95% CI, 12.5-14.4%) in the second tercile and 15.6% (95% CI, 14.7-16.5%) in the third tercile. A significant difference in the odds of neuraxial analgesia was observed between Black and White people for the second and third terciles. CONCLUSION: A multidimensional index of structural racism is associated with significantly reduced odds of receiving labor neuraxial analgesia among Black people and, to a lesser extent, White people.

Pain during cesarean delivery: A patient-related prospective observational study assessing the incidence and risk factors for intraoperative pain and intravenous medication administration.

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of pain during cesarean delivery (PDCD) remains unclear. Most studies evaluated PDCD using interventions suggesting inadequate analgesia: neuraxial replacement, unplanned intravenous medication (IVM), or conversion to general anesthesia. Few assess self-reported pain. This study evaluates the incidence of and risk factors for self-reported PDCD and IVM administration. METHODS: Between May and September 2022, English-speaking women undergoing cesarean delivery under neuraxial anesthesia were approached within the first 48 h. Participants answered a 16-question survey about intraoperative anesthesia care. Clinical characteristics were extracted from electronic medical records. The primary outcome was PDCD. Secondary outcomes were analgesic IVM (opioids alone or in combination with ketamine, midazolam, or dexmedetomidine) and conversion to general anesthesia. Risk factors for PDCD and analgesic IVM were identified using multivariable logistic regression models. RESULTS: Pain was reported by 46/399 (11.5%; 95% CI: 8.6, 15.1) participants. Analgesic IVM was administered to 16 (34.8%) women with PDCD and 45 (12.6%) without. Conversion to general anesthesia occurred in 3 (6.5%) women with and 4 (1.1%) without PDCD. Risk factors associated with PDCD were substance use disorder and intrapartum epidural extension. Risk factors associated with analgesic IVM were PDCD, intrapartum epidural extension when ≥2 epidural top-ups were given for labor analgesia, and longer surgical duration. DISCUSSION: In our cohort of scheduled and unplanned cesarean deliveries, the incidence of PDCD was 11.5%. A significant proportion of women (15.1%) received analgesic IVM, of which some but not all reported pain, which requires further evaluation to identify triggers for IVM administration and strategies optimizing shared decision-making.

State-Level Indicators of Structural Racism and Severe Adverse Maternal Outcomes During Childbirth.

OBJECTIVES: Structural racism (SR) is viewed as a root cause of racial and ethnic disparities in maternal health outcomes. However, evidence linking SR to increased odds of severe adverse maternal outcomes (SAMO) is scant. This study assessed the association between state-level indicators of SR and SAMO during childbirth. METHODS: Data for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white women came from the US Natality file, 2017-2018. The exposures were state-level Black-to-white inequity ratios for lower education level, unemployment, and prison incarceration. The outcome was patient-level SAMO, including eclampsia, blood transfusion, hysterectomy, or intensive care unit admission. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) of SAMO associated with each ratio were estimated using multilevel models adjusting for patient, hospital, and state characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 4,804,488 birth certificates were analyzed, with 22.5% for Black women. SAMO incidence was 106.4 per 10,000 (95% CI 104.5, 108.4) for Black women, and 72.7 per 10,000 (95% CI 71.8, 73.6) for white women. Odds of SAMO increased 35% per 1-unit increase in the unemployment ratio for Black women (aOR 1.35; 95% CI 1.04, 1.73), and 16% for white women (aOR 1.16; 95% CI 1.01, 1.33). Odds of SAMO increased 6% per 1-unit increase in the incarceration ratio for Black women (aOR 1.06; 95% CI 1.03, 1.10), and 4% for white women (aOR 1.04; 95% CI 1.02, 1.06). No significant association was observed between SAMO and the lower education level ratio. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: State-level Black-to-white inequity ratios for unemployment and incarceration are associated with significantly increased odds of SAMO.

Delivery Outcomes and Postpartum Readmissions Associated with Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Given that updated estimates of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and risks for obstetric complications including postpartum readmission may be of public health significance, we sought to analyze associated obstetric trends and outcomes in a nationally representative population. STUDY DESIGN: The 2016 to 2020 Nationwide Readmissions Database was used for this retrospective cohort study. Delivery hospitalizations to women aged 15 to 54 with and without Ehlers-Danlos syndrome were identified. Temporal trends in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome diagnoses during delivery hospitalizations were analyzed using joinpoint regression to estimate the average annual percent change with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). To determine whether adverse obstetric outcomes during the delivery were associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models were fit with unadjusted (odds ratio [OR]) and adjusted ORs with 95% CIs as measures of association. In addition to analyzing adverse delivery outcomes, risk for 60-day postpartum readmission was analyzed. RESULTS: An estimated 18,214,542 delivery hospitalizations were included of which 7,378 (4.1 per 10,000) had an associated diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome diagnosis increased from 2.7 to 5.2 per 10,000 delivery hospitalization from 2016 to 2020 (average annual percent change increase of 16.1%, 95% CI: 9.4%, 23.1%). Ehlers-Danlos syndrome was associated with increased odds of nontransfusion severe maternal morbidity (OR: 1.84, 95% CI: 1.38, 2.45), cervical insufficiency (OR: 2.14, 95% CI: 1.46, 3.13), postpartum hemorrhage (OR: 1.41, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.68), cesarean delivery (OR: 1.26, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.36), and preterm delivery (OR: 1.35, 95% CI: 1.16, 1.56). Estimates for transfusion, placental abruption, and placenta previa did not differ significantly. Risk for 60-day postpartum readmission was 3.0% among deliveries with Ehlers-Danlos (OR: 1.76, 95% CI: 1.37, 2.25). CONCLUSION: Ehlers-Danlos syndrome diagnoses approximately doubled over the 5-year study period and was associated with a range of adverse obstetric outcomes and complications during delivery hospitalizations as well as risk for postpartum readmission. KEY POINTS: · Ehlers-Danlos syndrome diagnoses approximately doubled over the 5-year study period.. · Ehlers-Danlos was associated with a range of adverse obstetric outcomes.. · Ehlers-Danlos was associated with increased readmission risk..

Association of Labor Neuraxial Analgesia with Maternal Blood Transfusion.

BACKGROUND: Labor neuraxial analgesia may reduce the odds of postpartum hemorrhage, the leading indication for maternal blood transfusion during childbirth. This study tested the hypothesis that labor neuraxial analgesia is associated with reduced odds of maternal blood transfusion overall. METHODS: U.S. birth certificate data in the Natality File of the National Vital Statistics System for all 50 states from 2015 to 2018 for vaginal and intrapartum cesarean deliveries were analyzed. The exposure was labor neuraxial analgesia. The primary outcome was maternal blood transfusion, recorded on the birth certificate, which has low sensitivity for this outcome. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% CIs of blood transfusion associated with neuraxial analgesia were estimated using propensity score matching. The adjusted odds ratios were estimated overall and according to delivery mode, and treatment effect was compared between vaginal and intrapartum cesarean deliveries using an interaction term. Sensitivity analyses were performed using inverse propensity score weighting and quantitative bias analysis for outcome misclassification. RESULTS: Of the 12,503,042 deliveries analyzed, 9,479,291 (75.82%) were with neuraxial analgesia, and 42,485 (0.34%) involved maternal blood transfusion. After propensity score matching, the incidence of blood transfusion was 0.30% in women without neuraxial analgesia (7,907 of 2,589,493) and 0.20% in women with neuraxial analgesia (5,225 of 2,589,493), yielding an adjusted odds ratio of 0.87 (95% CI, 0.82 to 0.91) overall. For intrapartum cesarean deliveries, the adjusted odds ratio was 0.55 (95% CI, 0.48 to 0.64), and for vaginal deliveries it was 0.93 (95% CI,. 0.88 to 0.98; P value for the interaction term < 0.001). The results were consistent in the sensitivity analyses, although the quantitative bias analysis demonstrated wide variation in potential effect size point estimates. CONCLUSIONS: Labor neuraxial analgesia may be associated with reduced odds of maternal blood transfusion in intrapartum cesarean deliveries and, to a lesser extent, vaginal deliveries. The specific effect size varies widely by delivery mode and is unclear given the poor sensitivity of the data set for the maternal transfusion primary outcome.

Medicaid expansion and risk of eclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Eclampsia is an indicator of severe maternal morbidity and can be prevented through increased prenatal care access and early prenatal care utilization. The 2014 Medicaid expansion under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act allowed states to expand Medicaid coverage to nonelderly adults with incomes up to 138% of the federal poverty level. Its implementation has led to a significant increase in prenatal care access and utilization. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the association of Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act with eclampsia incidence. STUDY DESIGN: This natural experiment study was based on US birth certificate data from January 2010 to December 2018 in 16 states that expanded Medicaid in January 2014 and in 13 states that did not expand Medicaid during the study period. The outcome was eclampsia incidence, the intervention was the implementation of the Medicaid expansion, and the exposure was state expansion status. Using the interrupted time series method, we compared temporal trends in the incidence of eclampsia before and after the intervention in expansion vs non-expansion states with adjustments for patient and hospital county characteristics. RESULTS: Of the 21,570,021 birth certificates analyzed, 11,433,862 (53.0%) were in expansion states and 12,035,159 (55.8%) were in the postintervention period. The diagnosis of eclampsia was recorded in 42,677 birth certificates or 19.8 per 10,000 (95% confidence interval, 19.6-20.0). The incidence of eclampsia was higher for Black people (29.1 per 10,000) than for White (20.7 per 10,000), Hispanic (15.3 per 10,000), and birthing people of other race and ethnicity (15.4 per 10,000). In the expansion states, the incidence of eclampsia increased during the preintervention period and decreased during the postintervention period; in the nonexpansion states, a reverse pattern was observed. A statistically significant difference was observed between expansion and nonexpansion states in temporal trends between the pre- and postintervention periods, with an overall 1.6% decrease (95% confidence interval, 1.3-1.9) in the incidence of eclampsia in expansion states compared with nonexpansion states. The results were consistent in subgroup analyses according to maternal race and ethnicity, education level (less than high school or high school and higher), parity (nulliparous or parous), delivery mode (vaginal or cesarean delivery), and poverty in the residence county (high or low). CONCLUSION: Implementation of the Affordable Care Act Medicaid expansion was associated with a small statistically significant reduction in the incidence of eclampsia. Its clinical significance and cost-effectiveness remain to be determined.

Association of the United States Affordable Care Act Dependent Coverage Provision with Labor Neuraxial Analgesia Use.

BACKGROUND: Providing continuous health insurance coverage during the perinatal period may increase access to and utilization of labor neuraxial analgesia. This study tested the hypothesis that implementation of the 2010 Dependent Coverage Provision of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, requiring private health insurers to allow young adults to remain on their parent's plan until age 26 yr, was associated with increased labor neuraxial analgesia use. METHODS: This study used a natural experiment design and birth certificate data for spontaneous vaginal deliveries in 28 U.S. states between 2009 and 2013. The intervention was the Dependent Coverage Provision, categorized into pre- and postintervention periods (January 2009 to August 2010 and September 2010 to December 2013, respectively). The exposure was women's age, categorized as exposed (21 to 25 yr) and unexposed (27 to 31 yr). The outcome was the labor neuraxial analgesia utilization rate. RESULTS: Of the 4,515,667 birth certificates analyzed, 3,033,129 (67.2%) indicated labor neuraxial analgesia use. For women aged 21 to 25 yr, labor neuraxial analgesia utilization rates were 64.9% during the preintervention period and 68.9% during the postintervention period (difference, 4.0%; 95% CI, 3.9 to 4.2). For women aged 27 to 31 yr, labor neuraxial analgesia utilization rates were 64.9% during the preintervention period and 67.7% during the postintervention period (difference, 2.8%; 95% CI, 2.7 to 2.9). After adjustment, implementation of the Dependent Coverage Provision was associated with a 1.0% (95% CI, 0.8 to 1.2) absolute increase in labor neuraxial analgesia utilization rate among women aged 21 to 25 yr compared with women aged 27 to 31 yr. The increase was statistically significant for White and Hispanic women but not for Black and Other race and ethnicity women. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the Dependent Coverage Provision was associated with a statistically significant increase in labor neuraxial analgesia use, but the small effect size is unlikely of clinical significance.

Nurse workforce diversity and reduced risk of severe adverse maternal outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Racial and ethnic diversification of the physician and nurse workforce is recommended as a leverage point to address the impact of structural racism in maternal care, but empirical evidence supporting this recommendation is currently lacking. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the association between state-level registered nurse workforce racial and ethnic diversity and severe adverse maternal outcomes during childbirth. STUDY DESIGN: This population-based cross-sectional study analyzed 2017 US birth certificate data. Severe adverse maternal outcomes included eclampsia, blood transfusion, hysterectomy, or intensive care unit admission. Proportions of minoritized racial and ethnic registered nurses in each state were abstracted from the American Community Survey (5-year estimate, 2013-2017). This proportion was categorized into 3 terciles, with the first tercile corresponding to the lowest proportion and the third tercile corresponding to the highest proportion. Crude and adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of severe adverse maternal outcomes associated with terciles of the state proportion of minoritized racial and ethnic nurses were estimated using logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of the 3,668,813 birth certificates studied, 29,174 recorded severe adverse maternal outcomes (79.5 per 10,000; 95% confidence interval, 78.6-80.4). The mean state proportion of minoritized racial and ethnic nurses was 22.1%, ranging from 3.3% in Maine to 68.2% in Hawaii. For White mothers, the incidence of severe adverse outcomes was 85.3 per 10,000 for those who gave births in states in the first tercile of the proportion of minoritized racial and ethnic nurses and 53.9 per 10,000 for those who gave birth in states in the third tercile (risk difference, -31.4 per 10,000; 95% confidence interval, -34.4 to -28.5). It corresponds to a 37% decreased risk of severe adverse maternal outcomes associated with giving birth in a state in the third tercile (crude odds ratio, 0.63; 95% confidence interval, 0.60-0.66). A decreased risk of severe adverse maternal outcomes was observed for Black mothers (crude odds ratio, 0.65; 95% confidence interval, 0.61-0.70), Hispanic mothers (crude odds ratio, 0.51; 95% confidence interval, 0.48-0.54), and Asian and Pacific Islander mothers (crude odds ratio, 0.65; 95% confidence interval, 0.58-0.72) but not for Native American mothers (crude odds ratio, 0.89; 95% confidence interval, 0.72-1.09) or mothers with >1 race (crude odds ratio, 1.44; 95% confidence interval, 0.72-1.09). After adjustment for patients and hospital characteristics, giving birth in states in the third tercile was associated with a reduced risk of severe adverse outcomes as follows: 32% for White mothers (adjusted odds ratio, 0.68; 95% confidence interval, 0.59-0.77), 20% for Black mothers (adjusted odds ratio, 0.80; 95% confidence interval, 0.65-0.99), 31% for Hispanic mothers (adjusted odds ratio, 0.69; 95% confidence interval, 0.58-0.82), and 50% for Asian and Pacific Islander mothers (adjusted odds ratio, 0.50; 95% confidence interval, 0.38-0.65). The associations of the proportion of minoritized racial and ethnic nurses with the risk of severe adverse maternal outcomes were not statistically significant for Native American mothers and more than 1 race mothers. Results were similar when blood transfusion was excluded from the outcome measure. CONCLUSION: A diverse state registered nurse workforce was associated with a reduced risk of severe adverse maternal outcomes during childbirth.

Deliveries Among Patients Aged 11-19 Years and Risk for Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize delivery hospitalization trends of patients aged 11-19 years and associated comorbidities and outcomes. METHODS: For this repeated cross-sectional analysis, deliveries to patients aged 11-54 years were identified in the 2000-2018 National Inpatient Sample. Temporal trends in deliveries to patients aged 11-14 years and 15-19 years were analyzed using joinpoint regression to estimate average annual percent change with 95% CIs. The association of deliveries among patients aged 11-19 years with other comorbid conditions was analyzed. The relationship between delivery among patients aged 11-19 years and adverse maternal outcomes was analyzed with unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models, with unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) as measures of effect. RESULTS: An estimated 73,198,153 delivery hospitalizations from 2000 to 2018 were included, of which 88,363 were to patients aged 11-14 years and 6,359,331 were to patients aged 15-19 years. The proportion of delivery hospitalizations among patients aged 11-14 years decreased from 2.1 to 0.4 per 1,000 from 2000 to 2018 (average annual percent change -7.8%, 95% CI -8.5% to -7.2%). Deliveries to patients aged 15-19 years decreased from 2000 to 2018, from 11.5% to 4.8% of all deliveries (average annual percent change -4.9%, 95% CI -5.6% to -4.3%). For deliveries among patients aged 11-19 years, rates of obesity, mental health conditions, substance use disorder, asthma, and pregestational and gestational diabetes all significantly increased over the study period. From 2000 to 2018, rates of severe maternal morbidity (average annual percent change 2.4%, 95% CI 1.6-3.1%), postpartum hemorrhage (average annual percent change 2.4%, 95% CI 1.4-3.4%), cesarean delivery (average annual percent change 1.3%, 95% CI 0.9-1.7%), and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (average annual percent change 3.3%, 95% CI 2.8-3.8%) all increased significantly among deliveries to patients aged 11-19 years. Compared with deliveries to patients aged 20-54 years, deliveries to patients aged 11-14 years were associated with increased risk for severe maternal morbidity (aOR 1.73, 95% CI 1.49-2.00), hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (aOR 1.79, 95% CI 1.71-1.88), and postpartum hemorrhage (aOR 1.37, 95% CI 1.27-1.49). CONCLUSION: Deliveries among patients aged 11-19 years have decreased, but both comorbidity and risk for adverse outcomes increased among this age group.

Delivery outcomes associated with maternal congenital heart disease, 2000-2018.

PURPOSE: To characterize temporal trends and outcomes of delivery hospitalization with maternal congenital heart disease (CHD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this repeated cross-sectional analysis, deliveries to women aged 15-54 years with maternal CHD were identified in the 2000-2018 National Inpatient Sample. Temporal trends in maternal CHD were analyzed using joinpoint regression to estimate the average annual percentage change (AAPC) with 95% CIs. The relationship between maternal CHD and several adverse maternal outcomes was analyzed with log-linear regression models. Risk for adverse outcomes in the setting of maternal CHD was further characterized based on additional diagnoses of cardiac comorbidity including congestive heart failure, arrhythmia, valvular disease, pulmonary disorders, and history of thromboembolism. RESULTS: Of 73,109,790 delivery hospitalizations, 51,841 had a diagnosis of maternal CHD (7.1 per 10,000). Maternal CHD rose from 4.2 to 10.9 per 10,000 deliveries (AAPC 4.8%, 95% CI 4.2%, 5.4%). Maternal CHD deliveries with a cardiac comorbidity diagnosis also increased from 0.6 to 2.6 per 10,000 from 2000 to 2018 (AAPC 8.4%, 95% CI 6.3%, 10.6%). Maternal CHD was associated with severe maternal morbidity (adjusted risk ratios [aRR] 4.97, 95% CI 4.75, 5.20), cardiac severe maternal morbidity (aRR 7.65, 95% CI 7.14, 8.19), placental abruption (aRR 1.30, 95% 1.21, 1.38), preterm delivery (aRR 1.47, 95% CI 1.43, 1.51), and transfusion (aRR 2.28, 95% CI 2.14, 2.42). Risk for severe morbidity (AAPC 4.7%, 95% CI 2.5%, 6.9%) and cardiac severe morbidity (AAPC 4.7%, 95% CI 2.5%, 6.9%) increased significantly among women with maternal CHD over the study period. The presence of cardiac comorbidity diagnoses was associated with further increased risk. CONCLUSION: Maternal CHD is becoming more common among US deliveries. Among deliveries with maternal CHD, risk for severe morbidity is increasing. These findings support that an increasing burden of risk from maternal CHD in the obstetric population.

Health equity research in obstetric anesthesia.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Health equity is an important priority for obstetric anesthesia, but describing disparities in perinatal care process and health outcome is insufficient to achieve this goal. Conceptualizing and framing disparity is a prerequisite to pose meaningful research questions. We emphasize the need to hypothesize and test which mechanisms and drivers are instrumental for disparities in perinatal processes and outcomes, in order to target, test and refine effective countermeasures. RECENT FINDINGS: With an emphasis on methodology and measurement, we sketch how health systems and disparity research may advance maternal health equity by narrating, conceptualizing, and investigating social determinants of health as key drivers of perinatal disparity, by identifying the granular mechanism of this disparity, by making the economic case to address them, and by testing specific interventions to advance obstetric health equity. SUMMARY: Measuring social determinants of health and meaningful perinatal processes and outcomes precisely and accurately at the individual, family, community/neighborhood level is a prerequisite for healthcare disparity research. A focus on elucidating the precise mechanism driving disparity in processes of obstetric care would inform a more rational effort to promote health equity. Implementation scientists should rigorously investigate in prospective trials, which countermeasures are most efficient and effective in mitigating perinatal outcome disparities.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Management of Postdural Puncture Headache With Epidural Blood Patch for Obstetric Patients in New York State.

Importance: Characterizing and addressing racial and ethnic disparities in peripartum pain assessment and treatment is a national priority. Objective: To evaluate the association of race and ethnicity with the provision and timing of an epidural blood patch (EBP) for management of postdural puncture headache in obstetric patients. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study used New York State hospital discharge records from January 1, 1998, to December 31, 2016, from mothers 15 to 49 years of age with a postdural puncture headache after neuraxial analgesia or anesthesia for childbirth. Statistical analysis was performed from February 2020 to February 2022. Exposures: Patients' race and ethnicity (reported as provided by each participating hospital; the method of determining race and ethnicity [ie, self-reported or not] cannot be determined from the data) were categorized into non-Hispanic White (reference group), non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and other race and ethnicity (including Asian and Pacific Islander, American Indian, Alaskan Native, and other). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the rate of EBP use. The secondary outcome was the interval (days) between hospital admission and provision of EBP. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs of EBP use associated with race and ethnicity were estimated using mixed-effect logistic regression models, adjusting for patient and hospital characteristics. Results: During the study period, 8921 patients (mean [SD] age, 30 [6] years; 1028 [11.5%] Black; 1301 [14.6%] Hispanic; 4960 [55.6%] White; and 1359 [15.2%] other race and ethnicity) with postdural puncture headache were identified among 1.9 million deliveries with a neuraxial procedure. Of these 8921 patients, 4196 (47.0%; 95% CI, 46.0%-48.1%) were managed with an EBP. A total of 2650 White patients (53.4%; 95% CI, 52.0%-54.8%) used an EBP; this rate was significantly higher than that among Hispanic patients (41.7% [543]; 95% CI, 39.9%-44.5%), Black patients (35.7% [367]; 95% CI, 32.8%-38.7%), or patients of other race and ethnicity (35.2% [478]; 95% CI, 32.6%-37.8%). Timing of EBP was at a median of 2 days (IQR, 2-3 days) after hospital admission for White patients compared with a median of 3 days (IQR, 2-4 days) for Hispanic patients, Black patients, and patients of other race and ethnicity (P < .001 for the comparison with White patients). After adjustment for patient and hospital characteristics, the EBP rate was not different between White and Hispanic patients (adjusted OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 0.94-1.30). It was significantly lower for Black patients (adjusted OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.67-0.94) and patients of other races and ethnicities (adjusted OR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.73-0.99). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, significant racial and ethnic disparities in the management of postdural puncture headache with EBP were observed, with both lower rates and delayed timing, which may be associated with long-term adverse effects.

Use of Labor Neuraxial Analgesia for Vaginal Delivery and Severe Maternal Morbidity.

Importance: Addressing severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is a public health priority in the US. Use of labor neuraxial analgesia for vaginal delivery is suggested to reduce the risk of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH), the leading cause of preventable severe maternal morbidity. Objective: To assess the association between the use of labor neuraxial analgesia for vaginal delivery and SMM. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this population-based cross-sectional study, women aged 15 to 49 years undergoing their first vaginal delivery were included. Data were taken from hospital discharge records from New York between January 2010 and December 2017. Data were analyzed from November 2020 to November 2021. Exposures: Neuraxial analgesia (ie, epidural or combined spinal-epidural) vs no neuraxial analgesia. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was SMM, as defined by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the secondary outcome was PPH. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% CIs of SMM associated with neuraxial analgesia were estimated using the inverse propensity score-weighting method and stratified according to race and ethnicity (non-Hispanic White vs racial and ethnic minority women, including non-Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and other race and ethnicity) and to the comorbidity index for obstetric patients (low-risk vs high-risk women). The proportion of the association of neuraxial analgesia with the risk of SMM mediated through PPH was estimated using mediation analysis. Results: Of 575 524 included women, the mean (SD) age was 28 (6) years, and 46 065 (8.0%) were non-Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander, 88 577 (15.4%) were non-Hispanic Black, 104 866 (18.2%) were Hispanic, 258 276 (44.9%) were non-Hispanic White, and 74 534 (13.0%) were other race and ethnicity. A total of 400 346 women (69.6%) were in the low-risk group and 175 178 (30.4%) in the high-risk group, and 272 921 women (47.4%) received neuraxial analgesia. SMM occurred in 7712 women (1.3%), of which 2748 (35.6%) had PPH. Before weighting, the incidence of SMM was 1.3% (3486 of 272 291) with neuraxial analgesia compared with 1.4% (4226 of 302 603) without neuraxial analgesia (risk difference, -0.12 per 100; 95% CI, -0.17 to -0.07). After weighting, the aOR of SMM associated with neuraxial analgesia was 0.86 (95% CI, 0.82-0.90). Decreased risk of SMM associated with neuraxial analgesia was similar between non-Hispanic White women and racial and ethnic minority women and between low-risk and high-risk women. More than one-fifth (21%; 95% CI, 14-28) of the observed association of neuraxial analgesia with the risk of SMM was mediated through the decreased risk of PPH. Conclusions and Relevance: Findings from this study suggest that use of neuraxial analgesia for vaginal delivery is associated with a 14% decrease in the risk of SMM. Increasing access to and utilization of labor neuraxial analgesia may contribute to improving maternal health outcomes.

Association of Medicaid Expansion Under the Affordable Care Act With Perinatal Care Access and Utilization Among Low-Income Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To synthesize the empirical research evidence about the association between Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and increasing perinatal care access and utilization among low-income women. DATA SOURCES: We searched MEDLINE through PubMed (1966-present), EMBASE (Ovid), the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health (1982-present), PAIS Index (ProQuest), Web of Science (1900-present), and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Our review focuses on the association between Medicaid expansion under the ACA and perinatal care access and utilization, which cannot be subjected to randomized controlled trials, therefore ClinicalTrials.gov was not included in our search. METHODS OF STUDY SELECTION: A comprehensive search of the research literature was performed using Covidence. Studies were eligible if they were based on population data and research designs ensuring that the exposure (ie, Medicaid expansion under the ACA) preceded the perinatal care access or utilization outcome, had an appropriate comparison group, presented quantitative data, and examined pregnant or postpartum women. The search in six bibliographic databases returned 1,243 records, with 855 abstracts reviewed, 34 full-text articles screened for eligibility, and nine eligible studies included in the systematic review. TABULATION, INTEGRATION, AND RESULTS: Stata 16 software was used to generate summary estimates, forest plots, funnel plots, and heterogeneity statistics. Random effects modeling based on pooled data revealed that Medicaid expansion was associated with a 6.1% increase in Medicaid enrollment for pregnant women (95% CI 1.3-10.9%) and a 3.3% increase in perinatal care utilization (95% CI 0.2-6.3%). CONCLUSION: Medicaid expansion under the ACA is associated with a modest and statistically significant increase in perinatal care access and utilization among low-income women.

Trends and outcomes for deliveries with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy from 2000 to 2018: A repeated cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse trends, risk factors, and outcomes related to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP). DESIGN: Repeated cross-sectional. SETTING: US delivery hospitalisations. POPULATION: Delivery hospitalisations in the 2000-2018 National Inpatient Sample. METHODS: US hospital delivery hospitalisations with HDP were analysed. Several trends were analysed: (i) the proportion of deliveries by year with HDP, (ii) the proportion of deliveries with HDP risk factors and (iii) adverse outcomes associated with HDP including maternal stroke, acute renal failure and acute liver injury. Risk ratios were determined using regression models with HDP as the exposure of interest. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence of HDP, risk factors for HDP and associated adverse outcomes. RESULTS: Of 73.1 million delivery hospitalisations, 7.7% had an associated diagnosis of HDP. Over the study period, HDP doubled from 6.0% of deliveries in 2000 to 12.0% in 2018. The proportion of deliveries with risk factors for HDP increased from 9.6% in 2000 to 24.6% in 2018. In adjusted models, HDP were associated with increased stroke (aRR [adjusted risk ratio] 15.9, 95% CI 14.8-17.1), acute renal failure (aRR 13.8, 95% CI 13.5-14.2) and acute liver injury (aRR 1.2, 95% CI 1.2-1.3). Among deliveries with HDP, acute renal failure and acute liver injury increased; in comparison, stroke decreased. CONCLUSION: Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy increased in the setting of risk factors for HDP becoming more common, whereas stroke decreased. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: While hypertensive disorders of pregnancy increased from 2000 to 2018, stroke appears to be decreasing.

Trends in and Maternal Outcomes of Delivery Hospitalizations of Patients With an Asthma Diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize asthma prevalence and outcomes during U.S. delivery hospitalizations. METHODS: For this repeated cross-sectional analysis, deliveries to women aged 15-54 years with asthma were identified in the 2000-2018 National Inpatient Sample, which approximates a 20% stratified sample of all hospitalizations nationally. Temporal trends in asthma were analyzed using joinpoint regression to estimate the average annual percent change with 95% CIs. The association of asthma with other comorbid conditions was analyzed. The relationship between asthma and several adverse maternal outcomes was analyzed with unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models, with unadjusted odds ratios and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) as measures of effect. Risk for and trends in a composite of rare, but severe, respiratory complications also were analyzed. RESULTS: An estimated 73,109,790 delivery hospitalizations from 2000 to 2018 were included in the analysis, of which 2,221,644 (3.0%) had a diagnosis of asthma. (Unweighted, the study sample included 15,213,024 deliveries, of which 462,276 [3.0%] had a diagnosis of asthma.) Asthma diagnoses rose from 1.2% in 2000 to 5.3% in 2018, representing an average annual percent change of 8.3% (95% CI 7.4-9.2%). Asthma was more common among women with obesity and chronic hypertension. In adjusted analyses, asthma was associated with severe maternal morbidity (aOR 1.50, 95% CI 1.45-1.55), preeclampsia and gestational hypertension (aOR 1.29, 95% CI 1.26-1.30), postpartum hemorrhage (aOR 1.21, 95% CI 1.19-1.24), cesarean delivery (aOR 1.16, 95% CI 1.15-1.18), gestational diabetes (aOR 1.20, 95% CI 1.18-1.21), venous thromboembolism (aOR 1.79, 95% CI 1.65-1.95), and preterm delivery (aOR 1.27, 95% CI 1.25-1.29). From 2000 to 2018, severe respiratory complications decreased from 72 per 10,000 deliveries with asthma to 14 per 10,000 deliveries with asthma (average annual percent change -9.4%, 95% CI -13.3% to -5.3%). This decreasing risk was offset on a population level by an increase in the risk of asthma. CONCLUSION: Asthma is increasing during deliveries, is associated with adverse maternal outcomes, and is associated with comorbid conditions. Severe respiratory complications are decreasing proportionately among deliveries with asthma, but are stable on a population basis.

Risk for and temporal trends in cesarean surgical complications.

OBJECTIVE: It is possible that in the setting of increasing patient comorbidity and obesity, risk for surgical injury and need for reoperation is increasing. It is also possible that with differential uptake of evidence-based recommendations and increasing prevalence of risk factors such as obesity, risk for surgical site complications is increasing. The objective of this study was to evaluate trends in, risk factors for, and racial disparities related to cesarean complications. METHODS: This repeated cross-sectional study evaluated cesarean deliveries in the 2002-2014 National Inpatient Sample for women age 15-54. The primary outcome was a cesarean surgical complication composite including (i) surgical injuries, (ii) reoperation, and (iii) surgical site complications. Surgical injuries, reoperation, and surgical site complications were additionally evaluated individually as outcomes. Univariable and multivariable log linear regression models including demographic, clinical, and hospital factors were performed to assess risk for outcomes with unadjusted and adjusted risk ratios (aRR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) as measures of association. Temporal trends were estimated using average annual percentage change from a joinpoint regression model. A stratified analysis was performed restricted to non-Hispanic black women. Data was weighted to provide national estimates. RESULTS: A total of 16.2 million estimated cesarean deliveries (3.2 million unweighted cesarean deliveries) from 2002 to 2014 were included in this analysis. The prevalence of the cesarean surgical complication composite was 1.14%, surgical site complications occurred in 0.60%, surgical injuries in 0.49%, and reoperations in 0.10%. Comparing the end of the study (2012-2014) to the beginning of the study (2002-2003), adjusted risk for the composite was similar (aRR 0.93, 95% CI 0.92, 0.95). In comparison, surgical site complication risk was lower at the end of the study (aRR 0.77, 95% CI 0.75, 0.79) while risks for surgical injury (aRR 1.18, 95% CI 1.15, 1.22) and reoperation (1.18, 95% CI 1.10, 1.26) were higher. Non-Hispanic black women were at increased risk for surgical site complications (aRR 1.83, 95% CI 1.80, 1.87) and reoperation (aRR 1.44, 95% CI 1.37, 1.51), but not surgical injury (aRR 0.99, 95% CI 0.97, 1.02). In analyses stratified for non-Hispanic black women, there was a reduction in risk for surgical site complications at the end of the study period compared to the beginning similar to the primary analysis (aRR 0.76, 95% 0.72, 0.81) with a modest decrease in overall risk for the composite outcome (aRR 0.85, 95% CI 0.81, 0.89). CONCLUSION: A decrease in risk for surgical site complications was offset by slightly increased risk for surgical injury and reoperation in adjusted analyses. Among non-Hispanic black women, surgical site complication risk decreased proportionately with this group still at significantly higher overall risk.