ABSTRACT
A joint transcriptomic and proteomic approach employing two-dimensional electrophoresis, liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry was carried out to identify peptides and proteins expressed by the venom gland of the snake Bothrops insularis, an endemic species of Queimada Grande Island, Brazil. Four protein families were mainly represented in processed spots, namely metalloproteinase, serine proteinase, phospholipase A2 and lectin. Other represented families were growth factors, the developmental protein G10, a disintegrin and putative novel bradykinin-potentiating peptides. The enzymes were present in several isoforms. Most of the experimental data agreed with predicted values for isoelectric point and Mr of proteins found in the transcriptome of the venom gland. The results also support the existence of posttranslational modifications and of proteolytic processing of precursor molecules which could lead to diverse multifunctional proteins. This study provides a preliminary reference map for proteins and peptides present in Bothrops insularis whole venom establishing the basis for comparative studies of other venom proteomes which could help the search for new drugs and the improvement of venom therapeutics. Altogether, our data point to the influence of transcriptional and post-translational events on the final venom composition and stress the need for a multivariate approach to snake venomics studies.
Subject(s)
Animals , Proteome/analysis , Snake Venoms , Protein Biosynthesis , Bothrops , Poisons/analysisSubject(s)
Toxicology , Toxicology , Poisons , Poisoning , Toxins, Biological , Toxicology , Biochemistry , BiotechnologyABSTRACT
Breastfeeding is fundamental for infant health. However, its median duration in Brazil is very short, and national campaigns since the mid-1980s have attempted to revert this situation. In the present paper, data on breastfeeding are compared for two population-based cohorts of children born in 1982 and 1993 in the city of Pelotas in Southern Brazil. All hospital births in both years were studied and samples of these children were visited at home around 12 months of age. Median duration of breastfeeding increased from 3.1 to 4.0 months in this period. This rise suggests an impact by the national campaigns. In both cohorts, there were interactions between family income and the percentages of children breastfed at different ages. In the early months, breastfeeding was more prevalent in high-income families, but from nine months onwards it was more common among the poor. Low birthweight babies enjoyed shorter duration of breastfeeding. Despite the progress observed during the decade, duration of breastfeeding is still far short of international recommendations, justifying further campaigns prioritizing low birthweight babies and those from low-income families.
ABSTRACT
Prevalence of anthropometric deficits and of obesity were studied in two population-based birth cohort studies in the city of Pelotas in Southern Brazil, in 1982 and 1993. All hospital delivered babies in each one-year period were identified, and samples of approximately 20% were visited at home at around 12 months of age, totalling 1,449 children submitted to anthropometric examination in 1982 and 1,359 in 1993. Losses and refusals accounted for 20% of the children in 1982 and 7% in 1993. In this 11-year period, prevalence of weight/age deficits (below -2 standard deviations of the NCHS reference) fell from 5.4% to 3.8%, while that of weight/height dropped from 1.3% to 0.8%. Height/age deficits increased slightly, from 5.3% to 6.1%, while the proportion of obese children increased from 4.0% to 6.7%. The increase in weight at 12 months was due to a more rapid weight gain in the first year, since birthweights remained unchanged. About 10% of the children from the lowest income group had weight/age or height/age deficits, compared to 3% or less of those with a high family income. On the other hand, obesity showed a direct association with income, except for the wealthiest group, where the prevalence dropped, possibly due to concern among these families about the consequences of infant obesity.
