Forward Osmosis (FO) Membrane Fouling Mitigation during the Concentration of Cows' Urine.

FO membrane fouling mitigation during the concentration of cows' urine was investigated. In particular, the effects on the permeability recovery of cleaning methods such as membrane washing with deionized (DI) water, osmotic backwash, and chemical cleaning were studied. The characterization of foulants that accumulated on the membrane surface was found to be rich in sugars and proteins. The foulants were effectively removed by de-ionized water circulation (washing) and osmotic backwash. While osmotic back was more effective, it did not fully recover the permeability of the membrane. The foulants absorbed in the membrane pores were found to be mainly composed of sugars. Soaking the membrane in a solution of NaClO enabled the removal of foulants absorbed inside the membrane. It was revealed that soaking in 1% NaClO solution for 30 min achieved the best results (83% permeability recovery), while soaking for a longer time (10 h) using 0.2% NaClO resulted in counterproductive results.

Heat shock protein 47 stress responses in Chinese hamster ovary cells exposed to raw and reclaimed wastewater.

As wastewater reclamation and reuse becomes more widespread, risks of exposure to treated wastewater increase. Moreover, an unlimited number of pollutants can be identified in wastewater. Therefore, comprehensive toxicity assessment of treated wastewater is imperative. The objective of this study was to perform a comprehensive toxicity assessment of wastewater treatment systems using stress response bioassays. This powerful tool can comprehensively assess the toxicity of contaminants. In this study, samples from conventional activated sludge treatment, membrane bioreactors (MBRs) with different pore sizes and sludge retention times (SRTs), rapid sand filtration, coagulation, nano-filtration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) were investigated. The results of stress response bioassays confirmed that the secondary effluent showed higher stress response than influent indicating that biological treatment generates toxic compounds. The results obtained from molecular weight fractionation of water samples demonstrated that organic matter with a higher molecular weight fraction (>0.1 µm) causes toxicity in secondary effluent. Furthermore, supernatant from MBR reactors showed toxicity regardless of SRT. On the other hand, stress response was not detected in MBR permeates except for an MBR equipped with a larger pore size membrane (0.4 µm) and with a short SRT (12 days). While rapid sand filtration could not remove the toxic compounds found in secondary effluent, coagulation tests, operated at an appropriate pH, were effective for reducing stress response in the secondary effluent. Experimental findings also showed that stress response was not detected in cases of NF and RO permeate subsequent to MBR treatment.

Assessing the removal potential of soil-aquifer treatment system (soil column) for endotoxin.

Soil-aquifer treatment (SAT) of wastewater is an increasingly valued practice for replenishing aquifers due to ease of operation and low maintenance needs and therefore low cost. In this study, we investigated the fate of endotoxins through laboratory-scale SAT soil columns over a four month period. The effluent of rapid sand filtration was run through the columns under gravity flow conditions. Four SAT columns were packed with four different filter materials (fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand and very coarse sand). The effluent of rapid sand filtration (average dissolved organic carbon (DOC) = 4 mg l(-1) and average endotoxin concentration = 4 EU ml(-1)) was collected from a domestic wastewater treatment plant in Sapporo, Japan. DOC removal ranged from 12.5% to greater than 22.5% during the study, with DOC levels averaging 3.1 and 3.5 mg l(-1) for the SAT columns packed with different soils. Endotoxin transformation exhibited different profiles, depending on the time and soil type. Reduction in endotoxin concentration averaged 64.3% and was as high as 86.7% across the soil columns 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. While DOC removal was gradual, the reductions in endotoxin levels were rather rapid and most of the removal was achieved in the top layers. Soil with a larger grain size had lower efficiency in removing endotoxin. Tests were performed to evaluate the transformation of organic matter showing endotoxicity and to determine the mechanisms responsible for changes in the structural and size properties of dissolved organic matter (OM) during SAT. Dissolved OM was fractionated using Sep-Pack C18 Cartridges into hydrophobic and hydrophilic fractions. Dialysis tubes with different molecular weight cut-offs were used to perform size fractions of OM showing endotoxicity. Evaluation of the transformation of organic matter showing endotoxicity during SAT indicated that both hydrophobic and large molecules were reduced. Moreover, experimental findings showed that adsorption test data fit to the Freundlich isotherm and were affected by the particle grain size with higher adsorption capacity for fine and medium sand.

Characterization of endotoxic indicative organic matter (2-keto-3deoxyoctulosonic acid) in raw and biologically treated domestic wastewater.

The aim of this research is to characterize the organic matter showing endotoxicity in domestic wastewater. It is assumed that endotoxicity is caused by lipo-polysaccharide (LPS), particularly large and hydrophobic molecules. In this study, a batch experiment (decay test for 12 h) was conducted to confirm whether LPS is the cause of endotoxicity or not. 2-keto-3deoxyoctulosonic acid (KDO) was used as an indicator of presence of LPS.A size and structural characterization of several samples from raw and domestic wastewater was also carried out in order know which fractions are causing endotoxicity. Endotoxin and KDO patterns were found to be similar, peaking at the same time. Thus, organic matter showing endotoxicity, such as LPS was released in the decay test. Moreover, the organic matter released from bacteria during decay test was partly biodegradable. Results from size characterization (Molecular Weight Distribution) showed that the majority of endotoxin (up to 82%), in domestic sewage and secondary effluents,is composed of molecules larger than 100 kDa and less than 0.1 µm. Similarly, structural characterization (hydrophobic and hydrophilic) showed that the majority of endotoxin, ranging from 59% to 83% of the total endotoxicity, is hydrophobic fractions. Therefore, removing large and hydrophobic molecules from wastewater can be an effective way to achieve a significant decrease in its endotoxicity.

Survey on LPS endotoxin in rejected water from sludge treatment facility.

In this study, we applied the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test to rejected water samples from a sludge treatment facility in Sapporo, Japan. The endpoint LAL test was performed using a commercial kit and involved incubating a mixture of water samples and LAL reagent at 37 degrees C. We have observed that all of the rejected water showed endotoxic activity. Overflow from thickener and dewatering are the main contributor to this high concentration in the influent of treatment plants receiving return flow from sludge treatment facilities. The LAL test was also applied to sample batch tests, where sewage was mixed with rejected waters and aerated for 12 hours. It was found that the low biodegradability of endotoxic material in the mixture led to higher endotoxicity in comparison to the sewage and sludge aerated without rejected water. Several batch tests were also operated using sewage, sludge and different types of rejected water (overflow from thickener, dewatering, dehumidification, and desulfurization). The findings indicated that samples from reactors using water from thickener and dewatering had significant concentrations and these contributed to the high values of the effluent.

Assessment of endotoxin activity in wastewater treatment plants.

Endotoxic material, commonly associated to biological reactions, is thought to be one of the most important constituents in water. This has become a very important topic because of the common interest in microbial products governed by the possible shift to water reuse for drinking purposes. In this light, this study was conducted to provide an assessment of endotoxic activity in reclaimed wastewater. A bacterial endotoxin test (LAL test) was applied to water samples from several wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in Sapporo, Japan keeping in view the seasonal variation. Samples were taken from several points in WWTP (influent, effluent, return sludge, advanced treatment effluent). The findings of this study indicated that wastewater shows high endotoxin activity. The value of Endotoxin (Endo) to COD ratio in the effluent is usually higher than that of the influent. Moreover, it is found that wastewater contains initially endotoxic active material. Some of those chemicals are biodegradable and but most of them are non-biodegradable. Batch scale activated sludge studies were undertaken to understand the origin of endotoxic active material in the effluent. This study showed that those chemicals are mainly produced during biological reactions, more precisely during decay process. Moreover, raw wastewater (RWW) contains high amounts of organic matter having endotoxicity which remains in the effluent.