Purification and separation of glucomannan from porang tuber flour (Amorphophallus muelleri) using microwave assisted extraction as an innovative gelatine substituent.

Gelatine is frequently used as a food ingredient. However, Indonesia imports almost all of its gelatine, totaling 3990152 tons annually. Gelatine could be replaced with glucomannan compound which was found in porang tubers. However, it also contains calcium oxalate, which is harmful for the human body. In this study, calcium oxalate was first eliminated by the purification process using 10 % NaCl (w/w). Moreover, the microwave-assisted extraction method was used to extract the glucomannan compound by applying 300 W of microwave power with different extraction times (5, 10, 15, and 20 min) and different ethanol concentrations (60, 70, 80, and 96 %). Statistical analysis was used to optimize and identify significant parameters influencing the glucomannan concentration. The best conditions for glucomannan extraction were an extraction time of 10 min and an ethanol concentration of 80 % (v/v), resulting in a glucomannan yield of ≥96 %. Machine learning was successfully applied for data modelling using a Long Short-Term Memory block with an average R-square of 0.9772 (97.72 % accuracy) and an average MSE of 4.7719. Furthermore, physical and chemical characteristics of the extracted porang flour were accorded with SNI gelatine standards 06-3735 in 1995, which consisted of glucomannan (96.359 ± 1.164 %), calcium oxalate (0.009 ± 0.001 %), water (2.290 ± 0.986 %), ash (0.018 ± 0.002 %), fat (0.0235 ± 0.120 %), heavy metals (not identified), and pH (6.455 ± 0.191). Finally, the extracted glucomannan can be used as a potential regional substitute for gelatine production.

Synthesis of Cellulose Nanocrystals/HKUST-1 Composites and Their Applications: Crystal Violet Removal and Doxorubicin Loading.

This study developed a novel composite material containing cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and HKUST-1. Here, the addition of CNCs was used to enhance the characteristics of HKUST-1 in terms of surface area, adsorption ability, and functional groups. Here, the fabrication of CNCs@HKUST-1 composites was carried out by adding CNCs into the fabrication process of HKUST-1. The addition of CNCs provides additional functional groups on the surface of composite material which can be used to attach other organic compounds, such as in waste management and drug delivery systems. Here, CNCs@HKUST-1 composites were tested as a material for crystal violet (CV) removal and doxorubicin (DOX) loading. The removal capacity of CNCs@HKUST-1 composite towards CV molecules reached 1182.25 ± 27.74 mg/g, while the loading capacity for DOX drugs was around 1514.94 ± 11.67 mg/g. Both applications showed that CNCs@HKUST-1 composite had higher adsorption capacity and ability compared to its precursor materials, i.e., CNCs and HKUST-1.

Optimization and kinetic study of biodiesel production from nyamplung oil with microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technique.

Nyamplung oil (Calophyllum inophyllum), which has a high oil content and non-edible, has a lot of potential as a raw material in the production of biodiesel. Therefore, it has no impact on food security. In this research, response surface methodology was used to find the optimum conditions of biodiesel production from nyamplung, and the kinetics model of esterification reaction of free fatty acid (FFA) in the MAE method was determined. This study used RSM with central composite design (CCD) to find the optimal operating conditions. The RSM optimization with TG recovery shows 95.49% and FFA recovery 31.42% with operating conditions respectively at 423 W and 427 W and extraction time for 40 and 38 min. According to kinetic experiments conducted at various microwave power levels, the conversion of nyamplung into biodiesel follows the first, second, and third-order reactions. According to the data, the maximum R2 is found in the second and third-order reactions. It was determined the activation energy and kinetic rate constants. The reaction rate constants significantly increased at 150, 300, and 450 W, namely 0.0005 mol-1, 0.0008 mol-1, and 0.0008 mol-1. Nevertheless, it drops at 600 W to 0.0004 mol-1. It was found that the activation energy value using the MAE method was 604.43 J/mol. This value was smaller than the value of the activation energy using the conventional method, 4831.26 J/mol. It was shown that biodiesel production from nyamplung oil with the MAE method could change the conventional method because it needs less energy and less time. So, the production process is more efficient.

Statistically Optimum HKUST-1 Synthesized by Room Temperature Coordination Modulation Method for the Adsorption of Crystal Violet Dye.

Due to its excellency and versatility, many synthesis methods and conditions were developed to produce HKUST-1 ([Cu3(BTC)2(H2O)3]n). However, the diversity of HKUST-1 was actually generated both in terms of characteristics and morphologies. Hence, the consistency of HKUST-1 characteristics and morphologies needs to be maintained. The statistical analysis and optimization provide features to determine the best synthesis condition. Here, a room-temperature coordination modulation method was proposed to maintain the morphology of HKUST-1 while reducing energy consumption. In addition, response surface methodology (RSM) was used to demonstrate the statistical analysis and optimization of the synthesis of HKUST-1. The molar ratio of ligand to metal, reaction time, and acetic acid concentration were studied to determine their effects on HKUST-1. The optimum HKUST-1 was obtained by the synthesis with a molar ratio of ligand to metal of 0.4703 for 27.2 h using 5% v/v acetic acid concentration. The statistical analysis performed a good agreement with the experimental data and showed the significance of three desired parameters on HKUST-1. The optimum HKUST-1 had the adsorption capacity of 1005.22 mg/g with a removal efficiency of 92.31% towards CV dye. It could be reused up to 5 cycles with insignificant decrease in performance.

Facile and Green Synthesis of Starfruit-Like ZIF-L, and Its Optimization Study.

Due to its excellent characteristics, zeolitic imidazole framework-L (ZIF-L) is widely used in various applications, such as drug delivery, wastewater treatments and energy storage. In the synthesis of ZIF-L, the molar ratio of ligand to metal, the reaction time and the temperature are essential parameters to produce excellent ZIF-L. In this work, ZIF-L was synthesized using a facile and green synthesis method. It was statistically investigated and optimized to obtain the best operating conditions. The optimization was carried out toward the amount of adsorbed crystal violet (CV) dye (q) as the response in the statistics. The optimal ZIF-L was obtained using a molar ratio of ligand to metal of 8.2220 for 97 min at 29 °C, where the q value of the CV adsorption onto this optimal ZIF-L reached 823.02 mg/g. The obtained ZIF-L was characterized using SEM, XRD, FTIR and TGA analyses to ensure its excellent characteristics.

A Review of Lignocellulosic-Derived Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Applications: Lignin Nanoparticles, Xylan Nanoparticles, and Cellulose Nanocrystals.

Due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity, lignocellulosic-derived nanoparticles are very potential materials for drug carriers in drug delivery applications. There are three main lignocellulosic-derived nanoparticles discussed in this review. First, lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) are an amphiphilic nanoparticle which has versatile interactions toward hydrophilic or hydrophobic drugs. The synthesis methods of LNPs play an important role in this amphiphilic characteristic. Second, xylan nanoparticles (XNPs) are a hemicellulose-derived nanoparticle, where additional pretreatment is needed to obtain a high purity xylan before the synthesis of XNPs. This process is quite long and challenging, but XNPs have a lot of potential as a drug carrier due to their stronger interactions with various drugs. Third, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are a widely exploited nanoparticle, especially in drug delivery applications. CNCs have low cytotoxicity, therefore they are suitable for use as a drug carrier. The research possibilities for these three nanoparticles are still wide and there is potential in drug delivery applications, especially for enhancing their characteristics with further surface modifications adjusted to the drugs.

Hydrophobic Modification of Cellulose Nanocrystals from Bamboo Shoots Using Rarasaponins.

Because of their hydrophilic tendencies, the modification of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) is needed for applying them as a hydrophobic drug carrier. Previous studies have investigated several modification agents, such as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Natural surfactants, such as rarasaponins (RSs), are suitable to avoid human health and environmental issues. In this work, RSs were attached onto CNCs from bamboo shoots to enhance their hydrophobicity. The initial RS concentration and the operating temperature were studied to obtain the best conditions for the modification process, which had significances (p-value < 5%) toward the amount of RSs linked on the CNCs (q) as the response. A q as high as 203.81 ± 0.98 mg/g was obtained at an initial RS concentration of 2000 mg/L and an operating temperature of 30 °C. The curcumin uptake on CNCs-RSs reached 12.40 ± 0.24%, while it was slowly released until approximately 78% in 3 days.

Optimization of cellulose nanocrystals from bamboo shoots using Response Surface Methodology.

Cellulose-based advanced materials, such as cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), have high potential application for drug delivery system. In this study, the CNC were produced from bamboo shoots using acid hydrolysis process. The delignification of bamboo shoots was conducted using alkali and hydrogen peroxide pretreatment processes. The operating condition of the production of CNC from bamboo shoots was optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on the yield and crystals recovery as the responses. The optimum CNC yield of 50.67 ± 0.74% with a crystals recovery of 77.99 ± 1.14% was obtained at the sulfuric acid concentration of 54.73 wt% and a temperature of 39 °C from the optimization based on the yield. This optimization has been validated to confirm the accuracy.

Isolation and identification of cholestane and dihydropyrene from Calophyllum inophyllum.

The highest population of Calophyllum inophyllum is in Indonesia. One of the bioactive compound contained in C. inophyllum leave is cholestane. The extraction method was employed to obtain crude extract from these leaves. It was followed by identification of the bioactive compounds. The purpose of this research was to develop a process for isolating and identifying cholestane and dihydropyrene from methanolic extract of C. inophyllum leaves in high yield and purity. The effect of crude extract to non-polar solvent mass ratio and non-polar solvent types on the separation of the bioactive compounds were also systematically investigated. New compounds (trans-2-[2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-10b,10c-dimethyl-10b, 10c-dihydropyrene and anti-4-aza-B-homo-5.alpha-cholestane-3-one) were also identified in C. inophyllum leaves. The successful separation was obtained by employing CS2 as the solvent and crude extract to CS2 mass ratio of 1/10 (g/g).

Optimization of process conditions for tannin content reduction in cassava leaves during solid state fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Cassava leaves are a crucial source of alternative protein resources for both humans and livestock in developing societies in African and Asian countries that do not have easy access to available protein sources. Hence, cassava has the capacity to promote the economic development of these countries and provide food security. However, it has some disadvantages due to the anti-nutrient compounds present in its tissues, which limits the nutritional value of cassava leaves. Thus, proper processing of cassava leaves is essential in order to reduce the anti-nutrients to a safer limit before utilization. This study focuses on reducing the tannin content of cassava leaves during solid-state fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In addition, the Box-Behnken design of the Response Surface Methodology was applied to optimize various process parameters, such as carbon concentration, nitrogen concentration, moisture content, and incubation time for maximum reduction of tannin content in cassava leaves. A quadratic model was developed for the reduction of tannin content, which resulted in a perfect fit of the experimental data (p < 0.01). The optimal conditions were found at 1.4% (w/w) of carbon concentration, 0.55% (w/w) of nitrogen concentration, 57% (v/w) moisture content, and an incubation time of 96 h. The minimum tannin content obtained under these conditions was 0.125%, which indicated a reduction of 89.32 % in tannin content. Conversely, the protein content was increased with a further increase in fermentation time from 24 to 96 h (from 10.08 to 14.11-16.07 %). Furthermore, the ability of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce tannase under solid-state fermentation of cassava leaves was also studied. The maximum yield was obtained with an enzyme activity of 0.53 U/gds after 72 h of incubation.

Kinetic data of extraction of cyanide during the soaking process of cassava leaves.

With the toxicity problems arising from the consumption of hydrogen cyanide (HCN), an acceptable method of processing edible leaves with low HCN level while maintaining maximum nutritional content remain a challenge. This data focuses on the extraction kinetics of cyanide in cassava leaves during the soaking process. Various process parameters conducted at 26 ± 2 °C were evaluated, such as contact times (1-20 h) between the leaves and solvent, as well as the water-to-leaves ratios (spanning a range of 10-50 mL/g). After ten h of extraction with water, all experiments resulted in less than 9.5 ppm of HCN, which is less than the toxicity level recommended by the World Health Organization (10 ppm). The mild approach resulted in protein loss from 36.01% to 23.10-25.38%. Water-to-leaves ratios of 10, 30 and 50 mL/g resulted in a calculated effective cyanide diffusion coefficient of 0.864 × 10-13, 1.39 × 10-13, and 1.61 × 10-13 m2/s. The experimental data were also analyzed using empirical mathematical models to depict the leaching process. Accordingly, the data was predominantly fitted by Diffusion approach and Verma models with coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.999.

Identification of phytochemical compounds in Calophyllum inophyllum leaves

Objectives:To investigate the proximate composition,mineral content,and phytochemical compounds in Calophyllum inophyllum (C.inophyllum) leaves.Moreover,isolation and identification of pyrene were also performed.Methods:C.inophyllum leaves were extracted with methanol by percolation methods.The proximate composition of C.inophyllum leaves was analyzed by standard methods.Mineral contents in this plant were analyzed by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer.Phytochemical screening and analysis of this plant were performed by spectrophotometric method.Washing method with carbon disulfide was used for isolating dthydropyrene compound from C.inophyllum leaves extracts.Results:The result revealed that C.inophyllum leaves contained 11.24％ moisture,4.75％ ash,6.43％ crude protein,23.96％ crude fiber,9.91％ carbohydrate,and energy (79.17 kcal/100 g).The leaves also contained 0.007％ iron,1.240％ calcium,0.075％ sodium,0.195％ magnesium,0.100％ ppm potassium,and 0.040％ phosphorus.Moreover,11.51％ alkaloid,2.48％ triterpenoid,2.37％ flavonoid,7.68％ tannin,2.16％ saponin,2.53％ polyphenol,were identified in the methanolic crude extracts of C.inophyllum leaves.It was found that trans-2-[2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-10b,10c-dimethyl-10b,10c-dihydropyrene was obtained at purity of 79.18％ (22.17％ yield)from C.inophyllum leaves.Conclusions:C.inophyllum leaves may be used as a good source of fiber.It was found that C.inophyllum leaves have the potential as herbal drugs due to their phytochemical content.The separation,isolation,and purification of bioactive compounds from this methanolic crude extract and their biological activity are under further investigation.

Irresolvable complex mixture of hydrocarbons in soybean oil deodorizer distillate.

Aliphatic hydrocarbons (HCs) can be used as a fingerprint of a given seed oil. Only by characterization of aliphatic HCs could contamination by mineral oil in that seed oil be confirmed. During the isolation of squalene from soybean oil deodorizer distillate, a significant amount of unknown HCs, ca. 44 wt%, was obtained. These seemingly-easy-to-identify HCs turned out to be much more difficult to elucidate due to the presence of an irresolvable complex mixture (ICM). The objective of this study was to purify and identify the unknown ICM of aliphatic HCs from soybean oil deodorizer distillate. Purification of the ICM was successfully achieved by using modified Soxhlet extraction, followed by modified preparative column chromatography, and finally by classical preparative column chromatography. FT-IR, TLC, elemental analysis, GC/FID, NMR and GC-MS analyses were then performed on the purified HCs. The GC chromatogram detected the presence of ICM peaks comprising two major peaks and a number of minor peaks. Validation methods such as IR and NMR justified that the unknowns are saturated HCs. This work succeeded in tentatively identifying the two major peaks in the ICM as cycloalkane derivatives.

Biodiesel production from rice bran by a two-step in-situ process.

The production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) by a two-step in-situ transesterification from two kinds of rice bran was investigated in this study. The method included an in-situ acid-catalyzed esterification followed by an in-situ base-catalyzed transesterification. Free fatty acids (FFAs) level was reduced to less than 1% for both rice bran A (initial FFAs content=3%) and rice bran B (initial FFAs content=30%) in the first step under the following conditions: 10 g rice bran, methanol to rice bran ratio 15 mL/g, H(2)SO(4) to rice bran mass ratio 0.18, 60 degrees C reaction temperature, 600 rpm stirring rate, 15 min reaction time. The organic phase of the first step product was collected and subjected to a second step reaction by adding 8 mL of 5N NaOH solution and allowing to react for 60 and 30 min for rice bran A and rice bran B, respectively. FAMEs yields of 96.8% and 97.4% were obtained for rice bran A and rice bran B, respectively, after this two-step in-situ reaction.

Biodiesel production from rice bran oil and supercritical methanol.

In this study, production of biodiesel from low cost raw materials, such as rice bran and dewaxed-degummed rice bran oil (DDRBO), under supercritical condition was carried out. Carbon dioxide (CO2) was employed as co-solvent to decrease the supercritical temperature and pressure of methanol. The effects of different raw materials on the yield of biodiesel production were investigated. In situ transesterification of rice bran with supercritical methanol at 30MPa and 300 degrees C for 5 min was not a promising way to produce biodiesel because the purity and yield of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) obtained were 52.52% and 51.28%, respectively. When DDRBO was reacted, the purity and yield were 89.25% and 94.84%, respectively. Trans-FAMEs, which constituted about 16% of biodiesel, were found. They were identified as methyl elaidate [trans-9], methyl linoleaidate [trans-9, trans-12], methyl linoleaidate [cis-9, trans-12], and methyl linoleaidate [trans-9, cis-12]. Hydrocarbons, which constituted about 3% of the reaction product, were also detected.