Indoor air quality guidelines from across the world: An appraisal considering energy saving, health, productivity, and comfort.

Buildings are constructed and operated to satisfy human needs and improve quality of life. Good indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort are prerequisites for human health and well-being. For their provision, buildings often rely on heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, which may lead to higher energy consumption. This directly impacts energy efficiency goals and the linked climate change considerations. The balance between energy use, optimum IAQ and thermal comfort calls for scientifically solid and well-established limit values for exposures experienced by building occupants in indoor spaces, including homes, schools, and offices. The present paper aims to appraise limit values for selected indoor pollutants reported in the scientific literature, and to present how they are handled in international and national guidelines and standards. The pollutants include carbon dioxide (CO2), formaldehyde (CH2O), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and radon (Rn). Furthermore, acknowledging the particularly strong impact on energy use from HVAC, ventilation, indoor temperature (T), and relative humidity (RH) are also included, as they relate to both thermal comfort and the possibilities to avoid moisture related problems, such as mould growth and proliferation of house dust mites. Examples of national regulations for these parameters are presented, both in relation to human requirements in buildings and considering aspects related to energy saving. The work is based on the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) guidelines database, which spans across countries and institutions, and aids in taking steps in the direction towards a more uniform guidance for values of indoor parameters. The database is coordinated by the Scientific and Technical Committee (STC) 34, as part of ISIAQ, the International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate.

The Association between Perceived Annoyances in the Indoor Home Environment and Respiratory Infections: A Danish Cohort Study with up to 19 Years of Follow-Up.

The increasing prevalence of reported annoyances in the indoor environment threatens public health. This study aimed to investigate the association between perceived annoyances from the home environment and respiratory infections among individuals with and without asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). A total of 16,688 individuals from the Danish Health and Morbidity Survey initiated in 2000 were grouped according to their patterns of perceived annoyances. Information on respiratory infections (all causes, bacterial, viral, and those leading to hospital admissions) was obtained from Danish registers up to 19 years after the survey. Poisson regression of incidence rates (IRs) was applied to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs). Annoyances significantly increased the IR for respiratory infections of all causes and bacterial respiratory infections in individuals without asthma or COPD, adjusted IRR 1.16 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.34) and 1.15 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.31), respectively. However, no difference was observed for viral respiratory infections nor hospital admissions. Individuals with asthma or COPD and a high level of annoyances had a non-significantly increased IR in all four analyses of respiratory infections. These findings provide support for perceived annoyances as an important risk factor for respiratory infections.

The impact of stress and lifestyle factors on short-term sickness absence in a large Danish industrial company.

Objectives: Work-related stress and certain lifestyles have been associated with sickness absence among employees. We analysed relations between stress and lifestyles (as risk factors) and short-term sickness absence among employees of a large Danish industrial company. Moreover, we analysed the impact of risk factors on short-term sickness absence. Methods: A self-administered questionnaire was completed by 7753 employees (67% response rate). Relations between risk factors (dyssomnia, low physical activity, alcohol, smoking, unhealthy food habits, overweight and stress) and short-term sickness absence were analysed by calculating etiologic fractions and binary logistic regression. Relations between the number of risk factors and short-term sickness absence were also analysed. Finally, the cost of short-term sickness absence from risk factors was estimated to illustrate the potential savings in avoided loss of productivity that could be gained from intervention programmes. Results: Stress, overweight, smoking and dyssomnia are significantly related to short-term sickness absence. Etiologic fractions revealed that these factors were associated with between 29.8% and 37.8% of short-term sickness absence. The number of risk factors was also related to the risk and length of sickness absence. Conclusions: This study identified risk factors that could be addressed by intervention programmes to reduce short-term sickness absence. Based on the results, focus on the risk factors that account for most short-term sickness absence and reduction of the number of risk factors could potentially reduce short-term sickness absence. A 30% reduction is equivalent to an avoidance of a loss of productivity of 4.5%, corresponding to €9.4 million per year.

Cancer Risk following Residential Exposure to Airborne Polychlorinated Biphenyls: A Danish Register-Based Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are biopersistent chemicals classified as human carcinogens. This classification is primarily based on evidence on higher-chlorinated PCBs found in food. The carcinogenic potential of airborne lower-chlorinated PCBs remains largely unexplored. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate cancer risk following residential exposure to airborne PCBs. METHODS: Cancer risk was examined in the Health Effects of PCBs in Indoor Air (HESPAIR) cohort of 38,613 residents of two partly PCB-contaminated residential areas in Greater Copenhagen, identified by nationwide registries. PCB exposure was based on relocation dates and indoor air PCB measurements in subsets of apartments. Cancer diagnoses were extracted from the Danish Cancer Registry for the follow-up period of 1970-2018. We estimated adjusted hazard ratios with time-varying cumulative exposure and a 10-y lag using Cox regression. RESULTS: Overall risk of cancer was not associated with PCByear, [hazard ratio (HR) for high-exposed vs. low-exposed =0.98; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.88, 1.09], but residents exposed to ≥3,000 ng/m3 PCB×year had higher risk of liver cancer (HR =2.81; 95% CI: 1.28, 6.15) and meningiomas (HR =3.49; 95% CI: 1.84, 6.64), with indications of exposure-response relationships. Results were suggestive of a higher risk of pancreatic cancer (HR =1.59; 95% CI: 0.95, 2.64) at the highest aggregated PCB level. For testis cancer, a higher risk was observed among residents exposed to 300-949 ng/m3 PCB×year relative to residents exposed to <300 ng/m3 PCB×year (HR =2.97; 95% CI: 1.41, 6.28), but the risk was not higher for residents exposed to ≥950 ng/m3 PCB×year. Apart from this, the risk of specific cancers was similar across exposure groups. DISCUSSION: In this, to our knowledge, first population-based cohort study of residential exposure to airborne PCBs, we found no association between exposure to PCBs in indoor air in private homes and the risk for most of the specific cancers. Higher risk of liver cancer and meningiomas were observed. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10605.

Patterns of Perceived Indoor Environment in Danish Homes.

The indoor environment is composed of several exposures existing simultaneously. Therefore, it might be useful to combine exposures into common combined measures when used to assess the association with health. The aim of our study was to identify patterns of the perceived indoor environment. Data from the Danish Health and Morbidity Survey in the year 2000 were used. The perceived indoor environment was assessed using a questionnaire (e.g., annoyances from noise, draught, and stuffy air; 13 items in total). Factor analysis was used to explore the structure of relationships between these 13 items. Furthermore, groups of individuals with similar perceived indoor environment were identified using latent class analysis. A total of 16,688 individuals ≥16 years participated. Their median age was 46 years. Four factors were extracted from the factor analysis. The factors were characterized by: (1) a mixture of items, (2) temperature, (3) traffic, and (4) neighbor noise. Moreover, three groups of individuals sharing the same perception of their indoor environment were identified. They were characterized by: a low (n = 14,829), moderate (n = 980), and large number of annoyances (n = 879). Observational studies need to take this correlation and clustering of perceived annoyances into account when studying associations between the indoor environment and health.

PCB in air, dust and surface wipes in 73 Danish homes.

As part of an investigation of the total indoor exposure of residents in PCB contaminated apartments in a building estate in Denmark, 73 homes were visited. Samples of air, vacuum cleaner dust and surface wipes were taken and analysed for 15 PCB congeners. The 53 apartments located in high-rise buildings with indoor PCB containing sealants showed significant elevated total concentrations of PCB in air, dust and surface wipes compared to 20 reference homes. The average concentration in exposed homes was 2330 ng PCBtotal/m3 in air, 12.000 ng PCBsum15/g in dust and for surface wipes 529 ng PCBsum15/wipe. These values were respectively 40, 25 and 50 times higher than the averages found in reference homes. The air concentration in all exposed homes was higher than the lower recommended action level of 300 ng PCBtotal/m3 from the Danish Health Authority, whereas all reference homes were below. The air concentrations in exposed homes were variating, partly due to indoor temperature. The concentrations in air and dust samples were significantly correlated for PCBsum7 in exposed homes. No significant correlation was observed between samples of air and surface wipes, despite surface wipes from exposed homes were significantly different from wipes taken in reference homes. Both dust samples and surface wipes have a potential as screening tool for identifying elevated levels of the less chlorinated PCBs in air. Additional short-term measurements of air concentrations in a subgroup of exposed homes indicated limited diurnal variations within the individual homes. The congener patterns were rather uniform within the respective media from the exposed homes and dominated by tri- and tetraPCBs. The pattern of air differed from that of dust and surface wipes, which were more alike. The study demonstrates a wide spread PCB contamination of the indoor environment in buildings with PCB in indoor sealants and confirms the need for identifying and alleviate PCB in buildings causing a health concern to the occupants.

PCB in serum and hand wipes from exposed residents living in contaminated high-rise apartment buildings and a reference group.

Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in buildings constructed with PCB-containing materials can lead to increased body burden of PCB for building users. Exposure to PCB from building related sources was assessed by measuring PCB in serum and hand wipes in two groups of tenants living in the same building estate in apartments constructed with and without PCB. The median serum levels of the sum of 19 PCB congeners was 777 ng/g lw (5-95th percentile: 219-2576 ng/g lw) for the exposed group and 282 ng/g lw (5-95th percentile: 49.8-797 ng/g lw) for the reference group. The congener pattern in serum of the exposed was shifted towards lower chlorinated congeners and was dominated by tri- and tetrachlorinated congeners. The largest difference in serum levels between the groups was observed for PCB-28, with median levels of the exposed being 70 times higher than in the reference group. For very persistent lower chlorinated congeners, like PCB-28, 66 and 74, an increase with residence times was observed as a result of accumulation over time. Less persistent congeners such as PCB-44 and 70 were also elevated in the exposed group -but independent of residence time. The less persistent congeners can therefore be used as markers of recent exposure to original PCB sources. The hand wipes also showed a large exposure contrast, e.g. PCB-28 being more than 60 times higher in the exposed group compared to the reference group (medians 14.4 and 0.23 ng/wipe, respectively) and no overlap between the groups. All measured di- to pentaPCB congeners were significantly higher in hand wipes from the exposed group compared with the reference group. Thus hand wipes seem to be a good, non-invasive screening tool for ongoing indoor exposure to PCB. Furthermore, the measured level of PCB on hand wipes was significantly correlated to PCB in blood for almost all congeners. In conclusion, PCB exposure in contaminated buildings can contribute significantly to the exposure and total body burden of PCB and the lower chlorinated congeners can make up the majority of the total PCB body burden.

Laboratory investigation of PCB bake-out from tertiary contaminated concrete for remediation of buildings.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been used in flexible construction products from the 1950s to the 1970s. Despite a relatively low vapour pressure, PCBs have over the years emitted to the indoor air and adsorbed to other surfaces, creating tertiary sources. While necessary to protect the environment and health of building occupants, remediation of the contaminated buildings is an expensive and difficult process. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of bake-out as a method for removing PCB from contaminated indoor surfaces. Four painted and four sandblasted samples of concrete wall were kept at 50 or 65 °C for 10 or 20 days in small scale chambers, which were ventilated with clean air at area specific rates comparable to full scale rooms. The air concentrations were measured several times during the bake-out. Concentrations of PCB in paint, plaster and concrete were measured before and after the experiment. For the painted samples, PCB28 and PCB52 followed by PCB138 and PCB153 were the predominant congeners measured in air. A significant reduction of the PCB concentration was only found for more volatile congeners in paint, while no significant effects were observed in the plaster or concrete. For the most effective setting (65 °C, 20 days), the concentration of PCB∑7 in the paint was reduced by 40%. For the sandblasted samples, the less volatile congeners PCB138 and PCB153 were predominant in the air during bake-out. No effect was observed on the initially low concentrations of the sandblasted samples, possibly due to analytical limitations.

C-Depth Method to Determine Diffusion Coefficient and Partition Coefficient of PCB in Building Materials.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been found to be persistent in the environment and possibly harmful. Many buildings are characterized with high PCB concentrations. Knowledge about partitioning between primary sources and building materials is critical for exposure assessment and practical remediation of PCB contamination. This study develops a C-depth method to determine diffusion coefficient (D) and partition coefficient (K), two key parameters governing the partitioning process. For concrete, a primary material studied here, relative standard deviations of results among five data sets are 5%-22% for K and 42-66% for D. Compared with existing methods, C-depth method overcomes the inability to obtain unique estimation for nonlinear regression and does not require assumed correlations for D and K among congeners. Comparison with a more sophisticated two-term approach implies significant uncertainty for D, and smaller uncertainty for K. However, considering uncertainties associated with sampling and chemical analysis, and impact of environmental factors, the results are acceptable for engineering applications. This was supported by good agreement between model prediction and measurement. Sensitivity analysis indicated that effective diffusion distance, contacting time of materials with primary sources, and depth of measured concentrations are critical for determining D, and PCB concentration in primary sources is critical for K.

Indoor and outdoor exposure to ultrafine, fine and microbiologically derived particulate matter related to cardiovascular and respiratory effects in a panel of elderly urban citizens.

To explore associations of exposure to ambient and indoor air particulate and bio-aerosol pollutants with cardiovascular and respiratory disease markers, we utilized seven repeated measurements from 48 elderly subjects participating in a 4-week home air filtration study. Microvascular function (MVF), lung function, blood leukocyte counts, monocyte adhesion molecule expression, C-reactive protein, Clara cell protein (CC16) and surfactant protein-D (SPD) were examined in relation to exposure preceding each measurement. Exposure assessment included 48-h urban background monitoring of PM10, PM2.5 and particle number concentration (PNC), weekly measurements of PM2.5 in living- and bedroom, 24-h measurements of indoor PNC three times, and bio-aerosol components in settled dust on a 2-week basis. Statistically significant inverse associations included: MVF with outdoor PNC; granulocyte counts with PM2.5; CD31 expression with dust fungi; SPD with dust endotoxin. Significant positive associations included: MVF with dust bacteria; monocyte expression of CD11 with PM2.5 in the bedroom and dust bacteria and endotoxin, CD31 expression with dust serine protease; serum CC16 with dust NAGase. Multiple comparisons demand cautious interpretation of results, which suggest that outdoor PNC have adverse effects on MVF, and outdoor and indoor PM2.5 and bio-aerosols are associated with markers of inflammation and lung cell integrity.

Emission of isothiazolinones from water-based paints.

The isothiazolinone preservatives methylisothiazolinone (MI), methylchloroisothiazolinone (MCI), and benzisothiazolinone (BIT) are used in a wide variety of products including paint and cosmetics, and they are known to cause allergic contact dermatitis. Among painters they are one of the most common causes of contact dermatitis. Furthermore, they are all volatile, and severe reactions caused by emissions of especially MI from paint have been reported recently. In this study the concentrations of MI, BIT, and MCI in water-based paint were analyzed by LC-MS-MS, and the emissions from the paints were measured in climate chambers and in an apartment. Nineteen paints were analyzed for the content of MI, MCI, and BIT. All 19 paints contained MI, 16 contained BIT, and 4 contained MCI. In the chamber experiment emission of MI peaked within hours of application but then continued at a slow rate for more than 42 days. MCI was emitted more slowly and peaked after several days. BIT emissions were all around the limit of detection. In the apartment we were able to detect emission of MI several days after application. Long lasting evaporation and thus chronic exposure give credibility to the clinical observations that MI can be an important cause of airborne contact dermatitis among painters and consumers.

An indoor air filtration study in homes of elderly: cardiovascular and respiratory effects of exposure to particulate matter.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to particulate air pollution increases respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, especially in elderly, possibly through inflammation and vascular dysfunction. METHODS: We examined potential beneficial effects of indoor air filtration in the homes of elderly, including people taking vasoactive drugs.Forty-eight nonsmoking subjects (51 to 81 years) in 27 homes were included in this randomized, double-blind, crossover intervention study with consecutive two-week periods with or without the inclusion of a high-efficiency particle air filter in re-circulating custom built units in their living room and bedroom. We measured blood pressure, microvascular and lung function and collected blood samples for hematological, inflammation, monocyte surface and lung cell damage markers before and at day 2, 7 and 14 during each exposure scenario. RESULTS: The particle filters reduced the median concentration of PM2.5 from approximately 8 to 4 µg/m3 and the particle number concentration from 7669 to 5352 particles/cm3. No statistically significant effects of filtration as category were observed on microvascular and lung function or the biomarkers of systemic inflammation among all subjects, or in the subgroups taking (n = 11) or not taking vasoactive drugs (n = 37). However, the filtration efficacy was variable and microvascular function was within 2 days significantly increased with the actual PM2.5 decrease in the bedroom, especially among 25 subjects not taking any drugs. CONCLUSION: Substantial exposure contrasts in the bedroom and no confounding by drugs appear required for improved microvascular function by air filtration, whereas no other beneficial effect was found in this elderly population.

Plasma polychlorinated biphenyls in residents of 91 PCB-contaminated and 108 non-contaminated dwellings-an exposure study.

BACKGROUND: In the1950s-1970s polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were used in several countries as plasticizers in elastic sealants in buildings. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective was to study whether residents of PCB-contaminated dwellings had higher plasma levels of PCBs than their neighbours in non-contaminated dwellings. The secondary objective was to study possible associations between concentrations of PCBs in the indoor air and in the plasma of residents. METHODS: Stratified cross-sectional study of residents of a housing estate with four sections, of which only one section had PCB-containing sealants. The determination of 27 PCB congeners in plasma was performed among 134 exposed and 139 non-exposed residents. Air measurements were conducted in 104 flats. RESULTS: Significant differences in plasma PCBs between exposed versus non-exposed were found for most of the lower chlorinated and many of the higher chlorinated congeners. The median of sum of 27 PCBs was approximately four times higher in exposed compared with non-exposed residents. The elevated PCB concentrations persisted in multivariable analyses controlling for relevant cofactors. We found significant correlations between PCB indoor air concentrations and the PCB concentration in the plasma of the residents for ten of the lower chlorinated congeners. CONCLUSION: Our study confirms that indoor air exposure to PCBs from PCB containing sealants may result in a considerable internal PCBs exposure of the residents. For the first time we were able to demonstrate that the internal exposure to low chlorinated PCBs is significantly associated with the indoor air concentration of these congeners.

Sampling, extraction and measurement of bacteria, endotoxin, fungi and inflammatory potential of settling indoor dust.

Selection of sampling device, sampling location and period are important first steps in the measurement of exposure to bioaerosols in indoor air. The steps following the sampling include treatment of samples and laboratory analysis. In this study, settling bacteria, endotoxin, fungi and serine protease have been measured in Danish homes using Electrostatic Dust Fall Collectors (EDCs). The effects of the presence of occupants, sampling on open surfaces versus in bookcases and treatment of samples have been studied. Concentrations of bacteria and endotoxin were significantly higher when occupants were at home than when they were absent. Across homes, higher concentrations of fungi were found in spring than in winter, as was the total inflammatory potential, while higher concentrations of protease were found in winter than in spring. The placement of the EDCs in bookcases versus on an open surface significantly affected the measured concentrations of bacteria and endotoxin. Direct extraction of EDC cloths caused a higher measured concentration of bacteria, fungi and serine protease than if EDC cloths were extracted post-storage at -20 °C. Extraction of EDC cloths caused an average of 51% and 58% extraction of bacteria and fungi respectively. In conclusion, EDCs should be placed on open surfaces during the sampling, how much occupants are present in their home during sampling and sampling season should be considered, EDC cloths should not be stored in a freezer before extraction of microorganisms, but extraction suspensions can be stored at -80 °C without affecting the number of microorganisms significantly.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in indoor air originating from sealants in contaminated and uncontaminated apartments within the same housing estate.

Twenty-four congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in 83 air samples and 20 elastic sealants samples of apartments with PCB-containing sealants. In addition, PCBs were measured in 21 air samples from reference apartments located in an uncontaminated section of the same estate. The PCB(tot) levels in the air of the contaminated section were 168-3843 ng m(-3) (mean: 1030 ng m(-3)), while the mean levels in the reference apartments were 6.03 ng m(-3). The sum of the 24 measured PCB congeners in sealants from the contaminated section was 187-221680 mg kg(-1). Principal component analysis revealed four groups among the sealant samples with different congener compositions, only two of which were clearly similar to known PCB mixtures, while two were not. Significant correlations and intercorrelations were observed between the lower chlorinated congeners in air and sealant, e.g. for PCB 28(air) and 28(seal) (p=0.04) and for PCB 28(air) and 52(air), 52(seal). However, no correlation was observed between the lower chlorinated congeners and the sums of PCB (∑PCB(6) or ∑PCB(24)) or the higher chlorinated congeners. Analysis of air concentrations in relation to questionnaire data indicated that the indoor air levels could be reduced by increased cleaning and airing frequencies.

Occurrence of organochlorine pesticides in indoor dust.

Organochlorine pesticides are present in the environment and suspected of causing serious health effects. Diet has been the main exposure source, but indoor source release is gaining focus. Within a monitoring study of polychlorinated biphenyls of Danish buildings built during the 1960s and 1970s, we coincidently determined extreme levels of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) levels in two of ten random samples. This raises concern and further large scale investigations are warranted to confirm this.

Indoor particles affect vascular function in the aged: an air filtration-based intervention study.

RATIONALE: Exposure to particulate matter is associated with risk of cardiovascular events, possibly through endothelial dysfunction, and indoor air may be most important. OBJECTIVES: We investigated effects of controlled exposure to indoor air particles on microvascular function (MVF) as the primary endpoint and biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress as secondary endpoints in a healthy elderly population. METHODS: A total of 21 nonsmoking couples participated in a randomized, double-blind, crossover study with two consecutive 48-hour exposures to either particle-filtered or nonfiltered air (2,533-4,058 and 7,718-12,988 particles/cm(3), respectively) in their homes. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: MVF was assessed noninvasively by measuring digital peripheral artery tone after arm ischemia. Secondary endpoints included hemoglobin, red blood cells, platelet count, coagulation factors, P-selectin, plasma amyloid A, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, protein oxidation measured as 2-aminoadipic semialdehyde in plasma, urinary 8-iso-prostaglandin F(2alpha), and blood pressure. Indoor air filtration significantly improved MVF by 8.1% (95% confidence interval, 0.4-16.3%), and the particulate matter (diameter < 2.5 mum) mass of the indoor particles was more important than the total number concentration (10-700 nm) for these effects. MVF was significantly associated with personal exposure to iron, potassium, copper, zinc, arsenic, and lead in the fine fraction. After Bonferroni correction, none of the secondary biomarkers changed significantly. CONCLUSIONS: Reduction of particle exposure by filtration of recirculated indoor air for only 48 hours improved MVF in healthy elderly citizens, suggesting that this may be a feasible way of reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Emission of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate from PVC flooring into air and uptake in dust: emission and sorption experiments in FLEC and CLIMPAQ.

The emission of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) from a PVC flooring was studied for up to 472 days in both the FLEC (Field and Laboratory Emission Cell) and the CLIMPAQ (Chamberfor Laboratory Investigations of Materials, Pollution, and Air Quality). The loading of the CLIMPAQs was varied but was constant in the FLECs. The sorption properties of FLEC and CLIMPAQ were investigated using different methods. In addition, the uptake of DEHP by office floor dust on the PVC flooring was studied in CLIMPAQ experiments. The concentration versus time curves in both FLECs and CLIMPAQs increased slowly over about 150 days and reached a quasi-static equilibrium at 1 microg m(-3). The main conclusions were that (i) the emission rate of DEHP was limited by gas-phase mass transport and (ii) the dust layer increased the emission rate by increasing the external concentration gradient above the surface of the PVC. These conclusions were based on the facts that the specific emission rate was inversely proportional to the loading and that the dust had sorbed about four times as much DEHP over a 68-day period as emitted in the gas-phase experiments. About one-half of the emitted DEHP was deposited on the internal surfaces of both the FLEC and the CLIMPAQ.