Drug Dissolution in Oral Drug Absorption: Workshop Report.

The in-person workshop "Drug Dissolution in Oral Drug Absorption" was held on May 23-24, 2023, in Baltimore, MD, USA. The workshop was organized into lectures and breakout sessions. Three common topics that were re-visited by various lecturers were amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs), dissolution/permeation interplay, and in vitro methods to predict in vivo biopharmaceutics performance and risk. Topics that repeatedly surfaced across breakout sessions were the following: (1) meaning and assessment of "dissolved drug," particularly of poorly water soluble drug in colloidal environments (e.g., fed conditions, ASDs); (2) potential limitations of a test that employs sink conditions for a poorly water soluble drug; (3) non-compendial methods (e.g., two-stage or multi-stage method, dissolution/permeation methods); (4) non-compendial conditions (e.g., apex vessels, non-sink conditions); and (5) potential benefit of having both a quality control method for batch release and a biopredictive/biorelevant method for biowaiver or bridging scenarios. An identified obstacle to non-compendial methods is the uncertainty of global regulatory acceptance of such methods.

Lipid Bilayer Strengthens the Cooperative Network of a Membrane-Integral Enzyme.

Lipid bilayer provides a two-dimensional hydrophobic solvent milieu for membrane proteins in cells. Although the native bilayer is widely recognized as an optimal environment for folding and function of membrane proteins, the underlying physical basis remains elusive. Here, employing the intramembrane protease GlpG of Escherichia coli as a model, we elucidate how the bilayer stabilizes a membrane protein and engages the protein's residue interaction network compared to the nonnative hydrophobic medium, micelles. We find that the bilayer enhances GlpG stability by promoting residue burial in the protein interior compared to micelles. Strikingly, while the cooperative residue interactions cluster into multiple distinct regions in micelles, the whole packed regions of the protein act as a single cooperative unit in the bilayer. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation indicates that lipids less efficiently solvate GlpG than detergents. Thus, the bilayerinduced enhancement of stability and cooperativity likely stems from the dominant intraprotein interactions outcompeting the weak lipid solvation. Our findings reveal a foundational mechanism in the folding, function, and quality control of membrane proteins. The enhanced cooperativity benefits function facilitating propagation of local structural perturbation across the membrane. However, the same phenomenon can render the proteins' conformational integrity vulnerable to missense mutations causing conformational diseases1,2.

Lipid bilayer induces contraction of the denatured state ensemble of a helical-bundle membrane protein.

Defining the denatured state ensemble (DSE) and disordered proteins is essential to understanding folding, chaperone action, degradation, and translocation. As compared with water-soluble proteins, the DSE of membrane proteins is much less characterized. Here, we measure the DSE of the helical membrane protein GlpG of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in native-like lipid bilayers. The DSE was obtained using our steric trapping method, which couples denaturation of doubly biotinylated GlpG to binding of two streptavidin molecules. The helices and loops are probed using limited proteolysis and mass spectrometry, while the dimensions are determined using our paramagnetic biotin derivative and double electron-electron resonance spectroscopy. These data, along with our Upside simulations, identify the DSE as being highly dynamic, involving the topology changes and unfolding of some of the transmembrane (TM) helices. The DSE is expanded relative to the native state but only to 15 to 75% of the fully expanded condition. The degree of expansion depends on the local protein packing and the lipid composition. E. coli's lipid bilayer promotes the association of TM helices in the DSE and, probably in general, facilitates interhelical interactions. This tendency may be the outcome of a general lipophobic effect of proteins within the cell membranes.

Structural cavities are critical to balancing stability and activity of a membrane-integral enzyme.

Packing interaction is a critical driving force in the folding of helical membrane proteins. Despite the importance, packing defects (i.e., cavities including voids, pockets, and pores) are prevalent in membrane-integral enzymes, channels, transporters, and receptors, playing essential roles in function. Then, a question arises regarding how the two competing requirements, packing for stability vs. cavities for function, are reconciled in membrane protein structures. Here, using the intramembrane protease GlpG of Escherichiacoli as a model and cavity-filling mutation as a probe, we tested the impacts of native cavities on the thermodynamic stability and function of a membrane protein. We find several stabilizing mutations which induce substantial activity reduction without distorting the active site. Notably, these mutations are all mapped onto the regions of conformational flexibility and functional importance, indicating that the cavities facilitate functional movement of GlpG while compromising the stability. Experiment and molecular dynamics simulation suggest that the stabilization is induced by the coupling between enhanced protein packing and weakly unfavorable lipid desolvation, or solely by favorable lipid solvation on the cavities. Our result suggests that, stabilized by the relatively weak interactions with lipids, cavities are accommodated in membrane proteins without severe energetic cost, which, in turn, serve as a platform to fine-tune the balance between stability and flexibility for optimal activity.

Native Proteomics in Discovery Mode Using Size-Exclusion Chromatography-Capillary Zone Electrophoresis-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

Native proteomics aims to characterize complex proteomes under native conditions and ultimately produces a full picture of endogenous protein complexes in cells. It requires novel analytical platforms for high-resolution and liquid-phase separation of protein complexes prior to native mass spectrometry (MS) and MS/MS. In this work, size-exclusion chromatography (SEC)-capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE)-MS/MS was developed for native proteomics in discovery mode, resulting in the identification of 144 proteins, 672 proteoforms, and 23 protein complexes from the Escherichia coli proteome. The protein complexes include four protein homodimers, 16 protein-metal complexes, two protein-[2Fe-2S] complexes, and one protein-glutamine complex. Half of them have not been reported in the literature. This work represents the first example of online liquid-phase separation-MS/MS for the characterization of a complex proteome under the native condition, offering the proteomics community an efficient and simple platform for native proteomics.

Folding-Degradation Relationship of a Membrane Protein Mediated by the Universally Conserved ATP-Dependent Protease FtsH.

ATP-dependent protein degradation mediated by AAA+ proteases is one of the major cellular pathways for protein quality control and regulation of functional networks. While a majority of studies of protein degradation have focused on water-soluble proteins, it is not well understood how membrane proteins with abnormal conformation are selectively degraded. The knowledge gap stems from the lack of an in vitro system in which detailed molecular mechanisms can be studied as well as difficulties in studying membrane protein folding in lipid bilayers. To quantitatively define the folding-degradation relationship of membrane proteins, we reconstituted the degradation using the conserved membrane-integrated AAA+ protease FtsH as a model degradation machine and the stable helical-bundle membrane protein GlpG as a model substrate in the lipid bilayer environment. We demonstrate that FtsH possesses a substantial ability to actively unfold GlpG, and the degradation significantly depends on the stability and hydrophobicity near the degradation marker. We find that FtsH hydrolyzes 380-550 ATP molecules to degrade one copy of GlpG. Remarkably, FtsH overcomes the dual-energetic burden of substrate unfolding and membrane dislocation with the ATP cost comparable to that for water-soluble substrates by robust ClpAP/XP proteases. The physical principles elucidated in this study provide general insights into membrane protein degradation mediated by ATP-dependent proteolytic systems.

Steric trapping reveals a cooperativity network in the intramembrane protease GlpG.

Membrane proteins are assembled through balanced interactions among proteins, lipids and water. Studying their folding while maintaining the native lipid environment is necessary but challenging. Here we present methods for analyzing key elements of membrane protein folding including thermodynamic stability, compactness of the unfolded state and folding cooperativity under native conditions. The methods are based on steric trapping, which couples the unfolding of a doubly biotinylated protein to the binding of monovalent streptavidin (mSA). We further advanced this technology for general application by developing versatile biotin probes possessing spectroscopic reporters that are sensitized by mSA binding or protein unfolding. By applying these methods to the Escherichia coli intramembrane protease GlpG, we elucidated a widely unraveled unfolded state, subglobal unfolding of the region encompassing the active site, and a network of cooperative and localized interactions to maintain stability. These findings provide crucial insights into the folding energy landscape of membrane proteins.