[On the molecular drug design from viewpoint of precision medicine].

Precision medicine (PM) involves the application of "omics" analysis and system biology to analyze the cause of disease at the molecular level for targeted treatments of individual patient. Based on the targeted treatment PM is closely related to pharmaceuticals, which, as a therapeutic means and supply front, mainly embody the two aspects: drug discovery/development, and clinical administration. Innovation of new molecular entities with safety and specific efficacy is the prerequisite and guarantee for the PM practice; on the other hand, the outcome and clues in clinical PM feedback to new drug research. PM and drug research/application are interdependent and promote each other. Aimed at precision medicine, drug discovery and development involve well-known contents: the discovery and validation of targets, the association between target functions and indications (proof of concept), lead discovery and optimization, the association between preclinical investigations and clinical trials, the lean of industrialization and pharmacoeconomics. At the molecular level the therapeutic efficacy originates from the interactive binding between specific atoms or groups of the drug molecule and the complementary atoms or groups of the macromolecular target in three-dimensional space. The strict arrangement of such critical atoms, groups, or fragments reflect specific features for a precise binding to the corresponding target. An alteration of amino acid residues in mutational targets leads to the change in conformation of the target protein, and an accurate structure of drug is necessary for binding to the mutant species and avoiding off-targeting effect. For the tailoring of clinical treatment to the individual patient design and development of various new molecular entities are critical for treatment choice according to the molecular features of biological markers of patients. This article provides some examples and methods of drug design and development in the new period.

[Drug innovation and reverse thinking].

Drug innovation involves an individual molecular operation, and every new molecular entity features a hard-duplicated track of R&D. The transformation from an active compound to a new medicine carries out almost in a chaotic system devoid of regularity and periodic alteration. Since new millennium the dominant position in drug innovation has been occupied by the first-in-class drugs, yet the number of launched follow-on drugs has been distinctly decreased. The innovation of first-in-class drugs is characterized by a high risk throughout the whole process. To achieve initiative and uniqueness of drug discovery, the strategy and method of the inverse thinking might be a feasible way, because the inertial and conformity thinkings in drug discovery normally lead to ensemble with similar drug category. However, the study from the flipside or opposite of things(e.g. targets or effects) brand new routes might be opened. This article is to describe the strategy of reverse thinking in drug discovery by some examples including opioid receptor antagonist eluxadoline, HSP90 activator, h ERG channel agonist, covalent drugs, and ultra-small drugs.

[Concise analysis for innovation of pioneering and follow-on drugs].

More attention has been paid to the pioneering drug innovation since the new millennium, while the creation space of fast-followed drugs is shrinking due to the serious risks observed in the clinical phases following marketing. Innovative drug discovery aiming at the brand new target is dependent on the breakthrough in basic biology, followed by chemical biology, and medicinal chemistry. This roadmap requires harmonious environment and free exploration atmosphere, while mandatory planning unlikely accelerates drug discovery. This article concisely analyzes several critical aspects of current status of drug discovery.

[Application of temperature sensitive yeast models with definite target in the screening of potential human Pin1 inhibitors].

This study is to explore new lead compounds by inhibition of Pin1 for anticancer therapy using temperature sensitive mutants. As Pin1 is conserved from yeast to human, we established a high-throughput screening method for Pin1 inhibitors, which employed yeast assay. This method led to the identification of one potent hits, 8-11. In vitro, 8-11 inhibited purified Pin1 enzyme activity with IC50 of (10.40 +/- 1.68) micromol x L(-1), induced G1 phase arrest and apoptosis, showed inhibitory effects on a series of cancer cell proliferation, reduced Cyclin D1 expression, was defined as reciprocally matched for protein-ligand complex in virtual docking analysis and reduced cell migration ability. In vivo, we could observe reduction of tumor volume after treatment with 8-11 in xenograft mice compared with vehicle DMSO treatment. Altogether, these results provide for the first time the involvement of 8-11 in the anticancer activity against Pin1.

[Challenges and strategies of drug innovation].

Drug research involves scientific discovery, technological inventions and product development. This multiple dimensional effort embodies both high risk and high reward and is considered one of the most complicated human activities. Prior to the initiation of a program, an in-depth analysis of "what to do" and "how to do it" must be conducted. On the macro level, market prospects, capital required, risk assessment, necessary human resources, etc. need to be evaluated critically. For execution, drug candidates need to be optimized in multiple properties such as potency, selectivity, pharmacokinetics, safety, formulation, etc., all with the constraint of finite amount of time and resources, to maximize the probability of success in clinical development. Drug discovery is enormously complicated, both in terms of technological innovation and organizing capital and other resources. A deep understanding of the complexity of drug research and our competitive edge is critical for success. Our unique government-enterprise-academia system represents a distinct advantage. As a new player, we have not heavily invested in any particular discovery paradigm, which allows us to select the optimal approach with little organizational burden. Virtue R&D model using CROs has gained momentum lately and China is a global leader in CRO market. Essentially all technological support for drug discovery can be found in China, which greatly enables domestic R&D efforts. The information technology revolution ensures the globalization of drug discovery knowledge, which has bridged much of the gap between China and the developed countries. The blockbuster model and the target-centric drug discovery paradigm have overlooked the research in several important fields such as injectable drugs, orphan drugs, and following high quality therapeutic leads, etc. Prejudice against covalent ligands, prodrugs, nondrug-like ligands can also be taken advantage of to find novel medicines. This article will discuss the current challenges and future opportunities for drug innovation in China.

[Ligand efficiency and lead optimization].

Pharmacological activity and druggability are two pivotal factors in drug innovation, which are respectively determined by the microscopic structure and macroscopic property of a molecule. Since structural optimization consists in a molecular operation in the space with multi-dimensions, and there exists a body of uncertainties for transduction from in vitro activity into in vivo pharmacological response. It is necessary for early stage in lead optimization to evaluate compound quality or efficiency using a kind of metrics containing multi-parameters. On the basis of the describing parameters of activity and druggability, this overview deals with the roles of thermodynamic signatures and binding kinetics of drug-receptor interactions in optimizing quality of compounds, signifying the significance in optimization of microscopic structures for drug discovery.

[Modification of natural products for drug discovery].

Pharmacological activity and druggability are two essential factors for drug innovation. The pharmacological activity is definitely indispensable, and the druggability is destined by physico-chemical, biochemical, pharmacokinetic and safety properties of drugs. As secondary metabolites of animals, plants, microbes and marine organisms, natural products play key roles in their physiological homeostasis, self-defense, and propagation. Natural products are a rich source of therapeutic drugs. As compared to synthetic molecules, natural products are unusually featured by structural diversity and complexity more stereogenic centers and fewer nitrogen or halogen atoms. Naturally active substances usually are good lead compounds, but unlikely meet the demands for druggability. Therefore, it is necessary to modify and optimize these structural phenotypes. Structural modification of natural products is intent to (1) realize total synthesis ready for industrialization, (2) protect environment and resources, (3) perform chemical manipulation according to the molecular size and complexity of natural products, (4) acquire novel structures through structure-activity relationship analysis, pharmacophore definition, and scaffold hopping, and (5) eliminate unnecessary chiral centers while retain the bioactive configuration and conformation. The strategy for structural modification is to increase potency and selectivity, improve physico-chemical, biochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, eliminate or reduce side effects, and attain intellectual properties. This review elucidates the essence of natural products-based drug discovery with some successful examples.

[Drug promiscuity].

It is essential for a successful drug to possess two basic characteristics: satisfactory pharmacological action with sufficient potency and selectivity; good druggability with eligible physicochemical, pharmacokinetic and safety profiles, as well as structural novelty. Promiscuity is defined as the property of a drug to act with multiple molecular targets and exhibit distinct pharmacological effects. Promiscuous drugs are the basis of polypharmacology and the causes for side effects and unsuitable DMPK. Drug promiscuity originates from protein promiscuity. In order to accommodate, metabolize and excrete various endo- and exogenous substances, protein acquired the capability during evolution to adapt a wide range of structural diversity, and it is unnecessary to reserve a specific protein for every single ligand. The structures of target proteins are integration of conservativity and diversity. The former is represented by the relatively conservative domains for secondary structures folding, which leads to overlapping in ligand-binding and consequent cross-reactivity of ligands. Diversity, however, embodies the subtle difference in structures. Similar structural domain may demonstrate different functions due to alteration of amino acid sequences. The phenomenon of promiscuity may facilitate the "design in" of multi-target ligands for the treatment of complicated diseases, whereas it should be appropriately handled to improve druggability. Therefore, one of the primary goals in drug design is to scrutinize and manipulate the "merits and faults" of promiscuity. This review discusses the application of promiscuity in drug design for receptors, enzymes, ion channels and cytochrome P450. It also briefly describes the methods to predict ligand promiscuity based on either target or ligand structures.

[Strategy of molecular drug design: activity and druggability].

Intrinsic activity and druggability represent two essences of innovative drugs. Activity is the fundamental and core virtue of a drug, whereas druggability is essential to translate activity to therapeutic usefulness. Activity and druggability are interconnected natures residing in molecular structure. The pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic phases in vivo can be conceived as an overall exhibition of activity and druggability. Druggability actually involves all properties, except for intrinsic activity, of a drug. It embraces physico-chemical, bio-chemical, pharmacokinetic and toxicological characteristics, which are intertwined properties determining the attributes and behaviors of a drug in different aspects. Activity and druggability of a drug are endowed in the chemical structure and reflected in the microscopic structure and macroscopic property of a drug molecule. The lead optimization implicates molecular manipulation in multidimensional space covering activity, physicochemistry, biochemistry, pharmacokinetics and safety, and embodies abundant contents of medicinal chemistry.

[Synthesis and activity of some new histone deacetylases inhibitors].

To explore novel histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors with anti-tumor activity, twelve target compounds were synthesized, and their structures were confirmed by 1H NMR, MS and elemental analyses. Evaluation results in vitro showed that compound Ia exhibited potent inhibition against HDAC and is worth for further investigation. And compounds IIa, IIb, IIIa-IIIi possessed moderate HDAC inhibitory activity.

The synthesis of puerarin derivatives and their protective effect on the myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Puerarin is a naturally occurring isoflavone and is frequently used for the treatment of cardiovascular symptoms in China. By the structural modification of the puerarin molecule at different positions, seven new puerarin derivatives were obtained, and their cardioprotective activities (in vitro and in vivo) were respectively evaluated. The finding that the activities of 3 and 8 markedly exceeded puerarin suggested that the acylated modification of phenolic hydroxyl at C-7 in the puerarin molecule may improve the cardioprotective activity, which will be an important reference for further structural optimization.

[Strategy of molecular drug design: dual-target drug design].

Physiology-based and target-based drug discovery constitutes two principal approaches in drug innovation, which are mutually complementary and collaborative. With the target-based approach, a lot of new molecular entities have been marketed as drugs. However, many complicated diseases such as cancer, metabolic disorders, and CNS diseases can not be effectively treated or cured with one medicine acting on a single target. As simultaneous intervention of two (or multiple) targets relevant to a disease has shown improved therapeutic efficacy, the innovation of dual-target drugs has become an active field. Dual-target drug can modulate two receptors, inhibit two enzymes, act on an enzyme and a receptor, or affect an ion channel and a transporter. From viewpoint of molecular design, there are three approaches to construct a dual-target drug molecule. A connective molecule can simply be realized by combining two active molecules or their pharmacophores with a linker; while an integrated molecule comes into an entity either by fusing or by merging the common structural or pharmacophoric features of two active molecules, depending on the extent of the common features. The latter approach facilitates the reduction of molecular size and molecular weight and the optimal overlap between the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic spaces, which will certainly elevate the probability of being a drug.

[Design of multiple targeted drugs].

Drugs designed to act on individual molecular targets usually can not combat multigenic diseases such as cancer, or diseases that affect multiple tissues or cell types such as diabetes. Increasingly, it is being recognised that a balanced modulation of several targets can provide a superior therapeutic effect and side effect profile compared to the action of a selective ligand. The multi-target drugs which impact multiple targets simultaneously are better at controlling complex disease systems and are less prone to drug resistance. Here, we compare the disadvantage of the selective ligands and the predominance of multi-targets drugs in detail and introduce the approaches of designing multiple ligands and the procedure of optimization particularly. A key challenge in the design of multiple ligands is attaining a balanced activity at each target of interest while simultaneously achieving a wider selectivity and a suitable pharmacokinetic profile. On this point, the multi-target approach represents a new challenge for medicinal chemists, pharmacologists, toxicologists, and biochemists.

[Comparative pharmacophore analysis of dual dopamine D2/5-HT(2A) receptor antagonists].

Dual dopamine D2/5-HT2A receptor antagonists have potent activity and are referred to atypical antipsychotics due to their lower propensity to elicit EPS and their moderate efficacy toward negative symptoms. However, an on-going challenge in developing atypical antipsychotics drugs is to maintain the favorable profiles and avoid of cardiovascular risk. In this paper, comparative pharmacophore analysis of dual dopamine D2/5-HT2A receptor antagonists, hERG K+ channel blockers, and alA adrenoceptor antagonists is carried out, and the results could give some insight into multi-target drug design.

[Strategy of molecular drug design: hits, leads and drug candidates].

Hits, leads and drug candidates constitute three millstones in the course of drug discovery and development. The definition of drug candidates is a critical point in the value chain of drug innovation, which not only differentiates the research and development stages, but more importantly, determines the perspective and destiny of the pre-clinical and clinical studies. All outcomes from the development stage are actually attributed to the chemical structure of candidates. The quality of candidates, however, is restricted by the drug-likeness of lead compounds, which in turn is decided by the characteristics of hits. The hit-to-lead is to provide a promising and druggable structure for further development, whereas the optimization of lead compounds is a process to transform an active compound into a drug, which in essence is molecular manipulation in multi-dimensional space related to pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, physico-chemical, and safety properties. This review discusses the strategic principles in hit discovery, lead identification and optimization, as well as drug candidate definition with practical examples.

[Strategy of molecular design of drugs: the unification of macro-properties and micro-structures of a molecule].

The interaction of a drug with the organism involves both the disposition of a drug by the organism and the action of a drug on the organism. The disposition of various exogenous substances, including drugs, complies with general rules. The underlying physical and chemical changes to different drugs in view of time and space, i. e. pharmacokinetics, share common characteristics, that is the tout ensemble of a molecule and its macroscopic properties convey direct effect on the pharmacokinetic behavior as the tendency and consequence of biological evolution. The action of a drug on the organism, on the other hand, implicates the physico-chemical binding of a drug molecule to the target protein, which induces pharmacological and toxicological effects. The biological reactions, no matter beneficial or adverse, are all specific and individual manifestation of the drug molecule and determined by the interactive binding between definitive atoms or groups of the drug molecule and the macromolecular target in three-dimension. Such critical atoms, groups, or fragments responsible for the interaction reflect the microscopic structures of drug molecules and are called pharmacophore. In this context, a drug molecule is presumed as an assembly of macroscopic property and microscopic structure, with the macroscopic properties determining the absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination of drugs and the microscopic structure coining pharmacological action. The knowledge of the internal relationship between macroscopy/microscopy and PK/PD conduces to comprehension of drug action and guides molecular drug design, because this conception facilitates the identification of structural features necessary for biological response, and the determination of factors modulating the physico-chemical and pharmacokinetic properties. The factors determining macro-properties include molecular weight, solubility, charge, lipophilicity (partition), and polar surface area, etc., which are destined by molecular scaffolds and/or side chain(s) apart from pharmacophore. The features of micro-structures contributing to specific activity contain hydrogen bonding donor and acceptor, positive and negative charge centers, hydrophobic centers and centers of aromatic rings. Different combinations and spacial arrangements of these features determine the distinct activity presented. The macro-property and micro-structure are integrated into a single molecule, and are inseparable. The macro-property reflects overall contribution of atoms and groups in the micro-structure. On the other hand, structural changes aimed to adjust macroscopic property usually alter the relative position of the microscopic structure. The goal of molecular drug design is to integrate the macroscopic and microscopic factors in optimized manner. In the early stage of molecular design, both macroscopic property and microscopic structure should be considered to make pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and physico-chemical properties in optimal match. Therefore, it required the existence of structural overlapping among acceptable pharmacokinetics, visible developing potential and specific pharmacodynamics. The larger the scope of overlapping, the higher the possibility to be a drug.

Synthesis and anti-diabetic activity of (RS)-2-ethoxy-3-{4-[2-(4-trifluoro-methanesulfonyloxy-phenyl)-ethoxy]-phenyl}-propionic acid.

AIM: To synthesize and study the anti-diabetic activity of (RS)-2-ethoxy-3-{4-[2-(4-trifluoromethanesulfonyloxy-phenyl)-ethoxy]-phenyl}-propionic acid (compound I). METHODS: Compound I was prepared in 6 steps, using 4-(2-hydroxy-ethyl)-phenol as the starting material. The in vitro selectivity and potency of target compound I, rosiglitazone and WY-14643 on human PPARalpha and PPARgamma were determined in reporter gene assays. In vivo, rosiglitazone and compound I were administered orally to KK(Ay) mice for 14 d. Insulin tolerance tests and oral glucose tolerance tests were performed on the 10th and 14th day of treatment, respectively. At the end of the treatment, sera were collected for biochemical analysis. RESULTS: In vitro, compound I significantly activated both PPARalpha and PPARgamma. In vivo, compound I corrected the impaired insulin and glucose tolerance of KK(Ay) mice, and produced a significant reduction in plasma triglyceride levels after 14 d of treatment. The effect produced was significant compared with the control group. CONCLUSION: Both in vitro and in vivo anti-diabetic activity studies for compound I were conducted and the data suggest that this compound is a potentially effective anti-diabetic agent.

Formation of 4'-carboxyl acid metabolite of imrecoxib by rat liver microsomes.

AIM: Imrecoxib is a novel and moderately selective COX-2 inhibitor. The aim of the present in vitro investigation was to study the formation of the major metabolite 4'-carboxylic acid imrecoxib (M2) and identify the enzyme(s) involved in the reaction. METHODS: The formation of M2 was studied in rat liver cytosol in the absence or presence of liver microsome. The formed metabolite was identified and quantified by LC/MS(n). In addition, to characterize the cytochrome P450 (CYP) isozymes involved in M2 formation, the effects of typical CYP inhibitors (such as ketoconazle, quinine, alpha-naphthoflavone, methylpyrazole, and cimetidine) on the formation rate of M2 were investigated. RESULTS: The formation of M2 from 4-hydroxymethyl imrecoxib (M4) was completely dependent on rat liver microsomes and NADPH. Enzyme kinetic studies demonstrated that the formation rate of M2 conformed to monophasic Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Additional experiments showed that the formation of M2 was induced significantly by dexamethasone and lowered by ketoconazole strongly and concentration-dependently. By comparison, other CYP inhibitors, such as alpha-naphthoflavone, cimetidine, quinine, and methylpyrazole had no inhibitory effects on this metabolic pathway. CONCLUSION: These biotransformation studies of imrecoxib in rat liver at the subcellular level showed that the formation of M2 occurs in rat liver microsomes and is NADPH-dependent. The reaction was mainly catalyzed by CYP 3A in untreated rats and in dexamethasone-induced rats. Other CYP, such as CYP 1A, 2C, 2D, and 2E, seem unlikely to participate in this metabolic pathway.

Role of rat liver cytochrome P450 3A and 2D in metabolism of imrecoxib.

AIM: To investigate the in vitro metabolism of imrecoxib in rat liver microsomes and to identify the cytochrome P450 (CYP) forms involved in its metabolism. METHODS: Liver microsomes of Wistar rats were prepared using an ultracentrifuge. The in vitro metabolism of imrecoxib was studied by incubation with rat liver microsomes. To characterize the CYP forms involved in the 4 '-methyl hydroxylation of imrecoxib, the effects of typical CYP inducers (such as dexamethasone, isoniazid and beta-naphthoflavone) and of CYP inhibitors (such as ketoconazole, quinine, alpha-naphthoflavone, methylpyrazole, and cimetidine) on the formation rate of 4 '-hydroxymethyl imrecoxib were investigated. RESULTS: Imrecoxib was metabolized to 3 metabolites by rat liver microsomes: 4'-hydroxymethyl imrecoxib (M4), 4'-hydroxymethyl-5-hydoxyl imrecoxib (M3), and 4 '-hydroxymethyl-5-carbonyl imrecoxib (M5). Over the imrecoxib concentration range studied (5-600 micromol/L), the rate of 4'-methyl hydroxylation conformed to monophasic Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Dexamethasone significantly induced the formation of M4. Ketoconazole markedly lowered the metabolic rate of imrecoxib in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, a significant inhibitory effect of quinine on the formation of M4 was observed in microsomes obtained from control rats, isoniazid-induced rats, and b-naphthoflavone-induced rats. In contrast, a-naphthoflavone, cimetidine, and methylpyrazole had no inhibitory effects on this metabolic pathway. CONCLUSION: Imrecoxib is metabolized via 4'-methyl hydroxylation in rat liver microsomes. The reaction is mainly catalyzed by CYP 3A. CYP 2D also played a role in control rats, in isoniazid-induced rats and in beta-naphthoflavone-induced rats.