Relating ethnic identity, acculturation, and attitudes toward treating minority clients.

This study assessed the relationship among the ethnic identity, acculturation, and self-concepts of minority health care professionals and their attitudes toward treating minority clients and using alternative therapies. The sample consisted of 150 medical students of Indian descent. Strong ethnic identity and acculturation related to high self-esteem, self-clarity, the likelihood of treating more minority patients, and the use of alternative therapies. The more "Westernized" participants expressed less of a preference for serving minority patients and believed themselves to be less effective in serving minorities. Gender differences in some aspects of ethnic identity and attitudes were found. The results imply that a focus on acculturation and ethnicity in all client-clinician psychological research is critical, and especially in cases of cultural matching.

Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight.

The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.