Comparing experience- and description-based economic preferences across 11 countries.

Recent evidence indicates that reward value encoding in humans is highly context dependent, leading to suboptimal decisions in some cases, but whether this computational constraint on valuation is a shared feature of human cognition remains unknown. Here we studied the behaviour of n = 561 individuals from 11 countries of markedly different socioeconomic and cultural makeup. Our findings show that context sensitivity was present in all 11 countries. Suboptimal decisions generated by context manipulation were not explained by risk aversion, as estimated through a separate description-based choice task (that is, lotteries) consisting of matched decision offers. Conversely, risk aversion significantly differed across countries. Overall, our findings suggest that context-dependent reward value encoding is a feature of human cognition that remains consistently present across different countries, as opposed to description-based decision-making, which is more permeable to cultural factors.

Outcome context-dependence is not WEIRD: Comparing reinforcement- and description-based economic preferences worldwide.

Recent evidence indicates that reward value encoding in humans is highly context-dependent, leading to suboptimal decisions in some cases. But whether this computational constraint on valuation is a shared feature of human cognition remains unknown. To address this question, we studied the behavior of individuals from across 11 countries of markedly different socioeconomic and cultural makeup using an experimental approach that reliably captures context effects in reinforcement learning. Our findings show that all samples presented evidence of similar sensitivity to context. Crucially, suboptimal decisions generated by context manipulation were not explained by risk aversion, as estimated through a separate description-based choice task (i.e., lotteries) consisting of matched decision offers. Conversely, risk aversion significantly differed across countries. Overall, our findings suggest that context-dependent reward value encoding is a hardcoded feature of human cognition, while description-based decision-making is significantly sensitive to cultural factors.

First wave of SARS-CoV-2 in Santiago Chile: Seroprevalence, asymptomatic infection and infection fatality rate.

BACKGROUND: The first wave of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Chile occurred during the cold season reaching a peak by the end of June 2020, with 80 % of the cases concentrated in its capital, Santiago. The main objective of this study was to estimate the attack rate during this first wave of SARS-CoV-2 in a large, densely populated city with more than seven million inhabitants. Since the number of confirmed cases provides biased information due to individuals' potential self-selection, mostly related to asymptomatic patients and testing access, we measured antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 to assess infection prevalence during the first wave in the city, as well as estimate asymptomatic cases, and infection fatality ratio. To our knowledge this is one of the few population-based cross-sectional serosurvey during the first wave in a highly affected emerging country. The challenges of pandemic response in urban settings in a capital city like Santiago, with heterogeneous subpopulations and high mobility through public transportation, highlight the necessity of more accurate information regarding the first waves of new emerging diseases. METHODS: From April 24 to June 21, 2020, 1326 individuals were sampled from a long-standing panel of household representatives of Santiago. Immunochromatographic assays were used to detect IgM and IgG antibody isotypes. RESULTS: Seroprevalence reached 6.79 % (95 %CI 5.58 %-8.26 %) in the first 107 days of the pandemic, without significant differences among sex and age groups; this figure indicates an attack rate 2.8 times higher than the one calculated with registered cases. It also changes the fatality rate estimates, from a 2.33 % case fatality rate reported by MOH to an estimated crude 1.00 % (CI95 % 0.97-1.03) infection fatality rate (adjusted for test performance 1.66 % [CI95 % 1.61-1.71]). Most seropositive were symptomatic (81,1 %). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the high number of cases registered, mortality rates, and the stress produced over the health system, the vast majority of the people remained susceptible to potential new epidemic waves. We contribute to the understanding of the initial spread of emerging epidemic threats. Consequently, our results provide better information to design early strategies that counterattack new health challenges in urban contexts.

Adapting to Adversity: Effects of COVID-19 on Parenting in Chile.

The pandemic outbreak in March 2020 and its associated sanitary regulations and restrictions triggered an abrupt and significant change for society in general and for families' organization in particular. In Chile, the Santiago Metropolitan District was under a strict lockdown that involved the closure of the entire educational system. From a systemic-family stress perspective, the impact of these changes might have consequences not only for each individual family member, but for the parental dynamic and, consequently, for children's well-being. This paper presents the results of a follow-up study showing changes in self-reported parental depression and the perceived home organization of mothers and fathers assessed at three different moments: before the pandemic, at the initial outbreak, and after 1 month of strict lockdown. Relevant moderators were explored using linear mixed models to understand the within-subject changes in mothers' and fathers' self-reports across the different assessment times. Financial strain, personality traits of self-criticism and dependency, previous parent-child quality interaction, recent major stressful events, and number of children are highlighted as relevant factors that moderate changes in home chaos and parental mental health perception. Significant risks and protective factors are described for fathers and mothers. The use of pre-pandemic measures as baseline levels enabled the identification of personal and family characteristics that were related to better outcomes. The results help increase our understanding of the sanitary regulations' impacts on the family system and identify vulnerability indicators that should be considered.

Seroprevalence, spatial distribution, and social determinants of SARS-CoV-2 in three urban centers of Chile.

BACKGROUND: Seroprevalence studies provide an accurate measure of SARS-CoV-2 spread and the presence of asymptomatic cases. They also provide information on the uneven impact of the pandemic, pointing out vulnerable groups to prioritize which is particularly relevant in unequal societies. However, due to their high cost, they provide limited evidence of spatial spread of the pandemic specially in unequal societies. Our objective was to estimate the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in Chile and model its spatial risk distribution. METHODS: During Oct-Nov 2020, we conducted a population-based serosurvey in Santiago, Talca, and Coquimbo-La Serena (2493 individuals). We explored the individual association between positive results and socio-economic and health-related variables by logistic regression for complex surveys. Then, using an Empirical Bayesian Kriging model, we estimated the infection risk spatial distribution using individual and census information, and compared these results with official records. RESULTS: Seroprevalence was 10.4% (95% CI 7.8-13.7%), ranging from 2% (Talca) to 11% (Santiago), almost three times the number officially reported. Approximately 36% of these were asymptomatic, reaching 82% below 15 years old. Seroprevalence was associated with the city of residence, previous COVID-19 diagnosis, contact with confirmed cases (especially at household), and foreign nationality. The spatial model accurately interpolated the distribution of disease risk within the cities finding significant differences in the predicted probabilities of SARS-CoV-2 infection by census zone (IQR 2.5-15.0%), related to population density and education. CONCLUSIONS: Our results underscore the transmission heterogeneity of SARS-CoV-2 within and across three urban centers of Chile. Socio-economic factors and the outcomes of this seroprevalence study enable us to identify priority areas for intervention. Our methodological approach and results can help guide the design of interdisciplinary strategies for urban contexts, not only for SARS-CoV-2 but also for other communicable diseases.

[The harm to others from drinking: A population study]. / Daño a terceros producido por el alcohol: resultados de un estudio poblacional en Chile.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol can harm both drinkers and their human environment. Most of research in Chile has focused on the drinker. This work focuses on the damage to others. Governmental expenditures due to drinking are estimated to quadruple the income earned through taxation. AIM: To report the results of a population survey conducted in Chile in 2013 to assess the harm done to others from drinking by a known or unknown drinker. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A household survey of a sample of 1500 subjects living in urban areas, predominantly over 50.000 inhabitants, was conducted by trained interviewers. RESULTS: A significant number of respondents reported that the effect of alcohol consumption by third parties was somewhat (18.7%) or very negative (14.8%). The most frequent negative effects were verbal abuse (37.4%), being bullied (17.4%), feeling fearful at home or in a private meeting (19.6%) and family problems (16.9%). CONCLUSIONS: About one third of Chileans surveyed have suffered negative effects due to alcohol consumption of a known or unknown drinker. This finding signals the need of designing public policies addressed to minimize or prevent collateral effects of drinking.

Daño a terceros producido por el alcohol: resultados de un estudio poblacional en Chile / The harm to others from drinking: A population study

Background: Alcohol can harm both drinkers and their human environment. Most of research in Chile has focused on the drinker. This work focuses on the damage to others. Governmental expenditures due to drinking are estimated to quadruple the income earned through taxation. Aim: To report the results of a population survey conducted in Chile in 2013 to assess the harm done to others from drinking by a known or unknown drinker. Material and Methods: A household survey of a sample of 1500 subjects living in urban areas, predominantly over 50.000 inhabitants, was conducted by trained interviewers. Results: A significant number of respondents reported that the effect of alcohol consumption by third parties was somewhat (18.7%) or very negative (14.8%). The most frequent negative effects were verbal abuse (37.4%), being bullied (17.4%), feeling fearful at home or in a private meeting (19.6%) and family problems (16.9%). Conclusions: About one third of Chileans surveyed have suffered negative effects due to alcohol consumption of a known or unknown drinker. This finding signals the need of designing public policies addressed to minimize or prevent collateral effects of drinking.

Trust via disasters: the case of Chile's 2010 earthquake.

Chile has a long-standing history of natural disasters and, in particular, earthquakes. The latest big earthquake hit Chile on 27 February 2010 with a magnitude of 8.8 on the Richter scale. As an event that had a profound impact on significant portions of the population, the earthquake could theoretically have served to build trust by promoting new trust networks through the enhancement of distant family ties and the interaction between affected neighbours. This study offers an empirical analysis of this theory in the Chilean case. It finds that if initial social capital is very low (thus allowing for post-disaster looting and violence), then the impact of the trust-increasing effect is smaller. It also shows that the effect of the disaster was not transitory, but that it persisted and actually increased over time.

Progression of chronic hepatitis C to liver fibrosis and cirrhosis in patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus.

To evaluate the factors associated with the evolution of chronic hepatitis C in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients, a cross-sectional analysis of 41 HIV-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C (known as "HIV-HCV [hepatitis C virus]-coinfected patients") and a control group of patients with chronic hepatitis C who did not have HIV infection (known as "non-HIV-infected patients") was performed. The association of histological variables with demographic parameters, HCV load and genotype, HIV load, CD4(+) T cell count, and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was evaluated. HIV-HCV-coinfected patients showed a significantly higher HCV load, more-advanced fibrosis, and a higher liver fibrosis progression rate (FPR) than did non-HIV-infected patients. A high HCV load and a low CD4(+) T cell count were associated with a higher FPR. The immune response induced by HAART did not influence this progression. In conclusion, HIV-HCV-infected patients, mainly such patients with a high HCV load and an immunodepressed state, have a higher FPR. An independent effect of the immune response to HAART was not evident.