Genotyping of European Toxoplasma gondii strains by a new high-resolution next-generation sequencing-based method.

PURPOSE: A new high-resolution next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based method was established to type closely related European type II Toxoplasma gondii strains. METHODS: T. gondii field isolates were collected from different parts of Europe and assessed by whole genome sequencing (WGS). In comparison to ME49 (a type II reference strain), highly polymorphic regions (HPRs) were identified, showing a considerable number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). After confirmation by Sanger sequencing, 18 HPRs were used to design a primer panel for multiplex PCR to establish a multilocus Ion AmpliSeq typing method. Toxoplasma gondii isolates and T. gondii present in clinical samples were typed with the new method. The sensitivity of the method was tested with serially diluted reference DNA samples. RESULTS: Among type II specimens, the method could differentiate the same number of haplotypes as the reference standard, microsatellite (MS) typing. Passages of the same isolates and specimens originating from abortion outbreaks were identified as identical. In addition, seven different genotypes, two atypical and two recombinant specimens were clearly distinguished from each other by the method. Furthermore, almost all SNPs detected by the Ion AmpliSeq method corresponded to those expected based on WGS. By testing serially diluted DNA samples, the method exhibited a similar analytical sensitivity as MS typing. CONCLUSION: The new method can distinguish different T. gondii genotypes and detect intra-genotype variability among European type II T. gondii strains. Furthermore, with WGS data additional target regions can be added to the method to potentially increase typing resolution.

Hepatitis E virus in wild rabbits and European brown hares in Germany.

Recently, a change of hepatitis E from being a typical travel-associated disease to an autochthonous zoonosis in Germany was observed. An increasing number of autochthonous infections with the hepatitis E Virus (HEV) have been recognized in developed countries. Venison from wild boar is already known to be a potential source of infection, if not prepared properly by the consumer. In Germany, certain wild animals are known to be a reservoir for HEV. However, current information is missing about European brown hares (Lepus europaeus) and wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Thus, a total of 833 hunting-harvested animals (European brown hares n = 669; wild rabbits n = 164) were tested for the occurrence of HEV RNA and HEV antibodies. For this, liver and blood specimens were taken after hunts in six German federal states. HEV antibodies were found by ELISA in 2.2% (624/14) of European brown hares, but no HEV RNA was detectable by nested real-time RT-PCR. In contrast, a seroprevalence of 37.3% (126/47) was observed for wild rabbits, and 17.1% (164/28) of the samples were HEV RNA positive. Genomic analysis revealed that these partial sequences clustered within the rabbit clade of HEV-3 genotype. In addition, one rabbit sequence segregated into subtype 3g of HEV-3. Highest seroprevalences for hares and rabbits were detected in the federal states of Bavaria and of Schleswig-Holstein, respectively. Comparing urban, rural and insular areas, the highest seroprevalence was shown for wild rabbits in rural areas and for European brown hares on the northern island Fehmarn. This study provides evidence that European brown hares and wild rabbits from Germany can be infected with HEV. The different prevalences indicate that wild rabbits are a potential reservoir for HEV in Germany, whereas European brown hares seem to be only of minor importance for the epidemiology of HEV.

A novel astrovirus associated with encephalitis and ganglionitis in domestic sheep.

In June 2013, a 4-year-old Welsh Mountain ewe and in March 2014 a 10-day-old lamb of the same breed and the same flock presented progressive neurological signs including depressed sensorium, tremor, and unusual behaviour. Neuropathological examination of the brain and spinal cord detected non-suppurative polioencephalomyelitis and dorsal root ganglionitis, characteristic of a neurotropic viral agent in both sheep. Metagenomic analysis of different tissue samples from both animals identified a novel Ovine Astrovirus (OvAstV). The presence of viral genome in the central nervous system was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Although the cases presented nine months apart, the identified OvAstV shared nearly identical sequences, differing in only three nucleotide positions across the complete genome. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a close relation of OvAstV to neurotropic bovine astroviruses and an enteric OvAstV. In conclusion, these are the first reported cases of astrovirus infection in domestic sheep that were associated with encephalitis and ganglionitis.

Mutations during the Adaptation of H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus to the Respiratory Epithelium of Pigs Enhance Sialic Acid Binding Activity and Virulence in Mice.

The natural reservoir for influenza viruses is waterfowl, and from there they succeeded in crossing the barrier to different mammalian species. We analyzed the adaptation of avian influenza viruses to a mammalian host by passaging an H9N2 strain three times in differentiated swine airway epithelial cells. Using precision-cut slices from the porcine lung to passage the parental virus, isolates from each of the three passages (P1 to P3) were characterized by assessing growth curves and ciliostatic effects. The only difference noted was an increased growth kinetics of the P3 virus. Sequence analysis revealed four mutations: one each in the PB2 and NS1 proteins and two in the HA protein. The HA mutations, A190V and T212I, were characterized by generating recombinant viruses containing either one or both amino acid exchanges. Whereas the parental virus recognized α2,3-linked sialic acids preferentially, the HA190 mutant bound to a broad spectrum of glycans with α2,6/8/9-linked sialic acids. The HA212 mutant alone differed only slightly from the parental virus; however, the combination of both mutations (HA190+HA212) increased the binding affinity to those glycans recognized by the HA190 mutant. Remarkably, only the HA double mutant showed a significantly increased pathogenicity in mice. In contrast, none of those mutations affected the ciliary activity of the epithelial cells which is characteristic for virulent swine influenza viruses. Taken together, our results indicate that shifts in the HA receptor affinity are just an early adaptation step of avian H9N2 strains; further mutational changes may be required to become virulent for pigs.IMPORTANCE Swine play an important role in the interspecies transmission of influenza viruses. Avian influenza A viruses (IAV) of the H9N2 subtype have successfully infected hosts from different species but have not established a stable lineage. We have analyzed the adaptation of IAV-H9N2 virus to target cells of a new host by passaging the virus three times in differentiated porcine respiratory epithelial cells. Among the four mutations detected, the two HA mutations were analyzed by generating recombinant viruses. Depending on the infection system used, the mutations differed in their phenotypic expression, e.g., sialic acid binding activity, replication kinetics, plaque size, and pathogenicity in inbred mice. However, none of the mutations affected the ciliary activity which serves as a virulence marker. Thus, early adaptive mutation enhances the replication kinetics, but more mutations are required for IAV of the H9N2 subtype to become virulent.

High Prevalence of Highly Variable Atypical Porcine Pestiviruses Found in Germany.

Recently, a novel atypical porcine pestivirus (APPV) with significant distribution was described in the USA. Subsequent screening of the German pig sector showed a high prevalence of APPV with high variability among strains. First indication of a cell culture isolate is provided which will allow further investigations like pathogenesis studies.

Metagenomic approaches to identifying infectious agents.

Since the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, the untargeted screening of samples from outbreaks for pathogen identification using metagenomics has become technically and economically feasible. However, various aspects need to be considered in order to exploit the full potential of NGS for virus discovery. Here, the authors summarise those aspects of the main steps that have a significant impact, from sample selection through sample handling and processing, as well as sequencing and finally data analysis, with a special emphasis on existing pitfalls.

Depuis l'avènement des technologies de séquençage de nouvelle génération, le criblage non ciblé d'échantillons prélevés au cours d'un foyer de maladie afin d'identifier l'agent pathogène en recourant à la métagénomique est devenu accessible aux plans technique et économique. Néanmoins, un certain nombre d'aspects restent à élucider afin d'exploiter pleinement les possibilités offertes par le séquençage de nouvelle génération pour déceler des virus précédemment inconnus. Les auteurs résument ces aspects pour chaque étape déterminante, depuis le choix des échantillons jusqu'à leur manipulation et traitement, et du séquençage à l'analyse des données, en mettant l'accent sur les difficultés éventuelles.

Desde el advenimiento de las técnicas de secuenciación de próxima generación, el cribado no selectivo de muestras tomadas durante un brote para identificar al patógeno empleando la metagenómica ha pasado a ser técnica y económicamente viable. Sin embargo, hay una serie de aspectos que conviene tener en cuenta a fin de poder aprovechar plenamente las posibilidades que ofrecen esas técnicas para descubrir virus. Los autores resumen esos aspectos en relación con las principales etapas que tienen una influencia importante, desde la selección hasta la manipulación y el procesamiento de las muestras, pasando por la secuenciación y el análisis de datos, haciendo especial hincapié en sus posibles inconvenientes.

Reverse genetics in high throughput: rapid generation of complete negative strand RNA virus cDNA clones and recombinant viruses thereof.

Reverse genetics approaches are indispensable tools for proof of concepts in virus replication and pathogenesis. For negative strand RNA viruses (NSVs) the limited number of infectious cDNA clones represents a bottleneck as clones are often generated from cell culture adapted or attenuated viruses, with limited potential for pathogenesis research. We developed a system in which cDNA copies of complete NSV genomes were directly cloned into reverse genetics vectors by linear-to-linear RedE/T recombination. Rapid cloning of multiple rabies virus (RABV) full length genomes and identification of clones identical to field virus consensus sequence confirmed the approache's reliability. Recombinant viruses were recovered from field virus cDNA clones. Similar growth kinetics of parental and recombinant viruses, preservation of field virus characters in cell type specific replication and virulence in the mouse model were confirmed. Reduced titers after reporter gene insertion indicated that the low level of field virus replication is affected by gene insertions. The flexibility of the strategy was demonstrated by cloning multiple copies of an orthobunyavirus L genome segment. This important step in reverse genetics technology development opens novel avenues for the analysis of virus variability combined with phenotypical characterization of recombinant viruses at a clonal level.

Detection of a Novel Bovine Astrovirus in a Cow with Encephalitis.

Encephalitis can be caused by several infectious agents, including bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. In many cases, the causative agent cannot be identified, because the pathogens are unknown or detection methods are not routinely available. In our case, a 15-month-old cow developed central nervous disorders and died within 6 days after the onset of clinical signs. The histopathology revealed an acute encephalitis, predominantly in the brain stem, and a ganglionitis of the trigeminal ganglion with massive neuronal necroses in both the brain and the ganglion. However, a relevant panel of bacterial and viral infections of cattle could be routinely excluded. Therefore, a brain sample from the cow was analysed using a metagenomics approach with next-generation sequencing. A novel bovine astrovirus (BoAstV-BH89/14) could be identified using the analysis pipeline RIEMS, and the finding could be confirmed with a specific BoAstV RT-qPCR. The genome of the bovine astrovirus (BoAstV), belonging to the family Astroviridae in the genus Mamastrovirus, has a length of 6478 bp. Sequence identities between 71% to a sheep astrovirus and 69% to two recently described bovine astroviruses from the USA and Switzerland were ascertained. The latter were also connected to encephalitis cases in cattle. Like these, the new virus described here was detected in different brain sections using the specific BoAstV RT-qPCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization. In conclusion, while astroviruses so far were mainly found in relation to gastroenteritis in animals and humans, recently detected astrovirus infections were also related to encephalitis.

Polar bear encephalitis: establishment of a comprehensive next-generation pathogen analysis pipeline for captive and free-living wildlife.

This report describes three possibly related incidences of encephalitis, two of them lethal, in captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Standard diagnostic methods failed to identify pathogens in any of these cases. A comprehensive, three-stage diagnostic 'pipeline' employing both standard serological methods and new DNA microarray and next generation sequencing-based diagnostics was developed, in part as a consequence of this initial failure. This pipeline approach illustrates the strengths, weaknesses and limitations of these tools in determining pathogen caused deaths in non-model organisms such as wildlife species and why the use of a limited number of diagnostic tools may fail to uncover important wildlife pathogens.

Next Generation Sequencing Analysis of Biofilms from Three Dogs with Postoperative Surgical Site Infection.

The composition of biofilms in chronic wound infections of dogs is unclear. In the present study, histologically identified biofilms attached to sutures in chronically infected wounds of three dogs were examined by next generation sequencing of total DNA extracted from formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissue samples. The analysis identified an inhomogeneous bacterial composition in three tissues containing biofilms. Some of the identified bacterial families such as Staphylococci and Streptococci have been found before in biofilms associated with human and canine wounds but in this study were quantitatively in the minority. The majority of the reads classified as bacterial sequences had the highest identity with sequences belonging to the Porphyromonadaceae, Deinococcaceae, Methylococcaceae, Nocardiaceae, Alteromonadaceae, and Propionibacteriaceae and thus taxons of so far minor relevance in veterinary medicine.

Mitomycin C, 5-fluorouracil and folinic acid (Mi-Fu-Fo) as salvage chemotherapy in breast cancer patients with liver metastases and impaired hepatic function: a phase II study.

Patients with measurable liver metastases due to breast cancer and elevated liver enzymes were enrolled into the study. The planned schedule was mitomycin C 8 mg/m2 on day 1, 5-fluorouracil 750 mg/m2 and folinic acid 300 mg/m2 on day 1 and 2 every 4 weeks (Mi-Fu-Fo). Between May 1998 and December 2002, 30 patients with a median age of 51 years (range 33-74) were enrolled. All of them suffered from extensive metastases of the liver resulting in liver dysfunction. Myelosuppression was the most frequent toxicity. Six patients had a partial remission, 12 patients had stable disease and 12 patients progressed during treatment. The median time to progression was 4.5 months in all patients and 7.0 months in patients who responded to the therapy. The median overall survival for the total population was 6.0 months and in the group of responding patients 12.0 months. Mi-Fu-Fo, therefore, provides a valid option for breast cancer patients with liver dysfunction due to liver metastases.

Extracellular proteins of Staphylococcus aureus and the role of SarA and sigma B.

Staphylococcus aureus synthesizes a large number of extracellular proteins that have been postulated to play a role in bacterial virulence. The proteomic approach was used to analyse the pattern of extracellular proteins of two different S. aureus strains, RN6390 and COL. Thirty-nine protein spots were identified by N-terminal sequencing or MALDI-TOF-MS. The differences of the extracellular protein patterns between both strains are striking. Among the 18 proteins identified in S. aureus COL there are nine proteins not yet discovered in S. aureus RN6390. These are enterotoxin B, leukotoxin D, enterotoxin, serin proteases (SplA and SplC), thermonuclease, an IgG binding protein and two so far unknown proteins in S. aureus with similarities to SceD precursor in Staphylococcus carnosus and to synergohymenotropic toxin precursor in Streptococcus intermedius. In contrast, lipase as well as staphylokinase identified in S. aureus RN6390 were not detectable in S. aureus COL under the same conditions. By using a regulatory mutant of sarA (ALC136) isogenic to strain RN6390 we identified five proteins positively regulated by SarA and 12 proteins negatively regulated by SarA. Besides V8 protease (StsP) and Hlb already described to be regulated by the sar locus new putatively sarA-dependent proteins were identified, e.g. glycerolester hydrolase and autolysin both down-regulated in the sarA mutant, and aureolysin, staphylokinase, staphopain and format tetrahydrofolate lyase up-regulated in the mutant. Moreover, the role of sigma B in expression of extracellular proteins was studied. Interestingly, we found 11 proteins at an enhanced level in a sigB mutant of S. aureus COL, among them enterotoxin B, alpha and beta hemolysin, serine proteases SplA and SplB, leukotoxin D, and staphopain homologues. The sigma B-dependent repression of gene expression occurs at the transcriptional level. Only one protein, SceD, was identified whose synthesis was down-regulated in the mutant indicating that its gene belongs to the sigma B-dependent general stress regulon.

Identification of sigma(B)-dependent genes in Bacillus subtilis using a promoter consensus-directed search and oligonucleotide hybridization.

A consensus-directed search for sigma(B) promoters was used to locate potential candidates for new sigma(B)-dependent genes in Bacillus subtilis. Screening of those candidates by oligonucleotide hybridizations with total RNA from exponentially growing or ethanol-stressed cells of the wild type as well as a sigB mutant revealed 22 genes that required sigma(B) for induction by ethanol. Although almost 50% of the proteins encoded by the newly discovered sigma(B)-dependent stress genes seem to be membrane localized, biochemical functions have so far not been defined for any of the gene products. Allocation of the genes to the sigma(B)-dependent stress regulon may indicate a potential function in the establishment of a multiple stress resistance. AldY and YhdF show similarities to NAD(P)-dependent dehydrogenases and YdbP to thioredoxins, supporting our suggestion that sigma(B)-dependent proteins may be involved in the maintenance of the intracellular redox balance after stress.