Can period-related symptoms predict menstrual manipulation among Australian female cyclists?

This study explored the extent of menstrual manipulation and its associated impact on period-related symptoms and training disruptions in Australian Female Cyclists. 205 female cyclists, from recreational to elite level, participated in an online "Female Cyclist Questionnaire (FCQ)". The FCQ utilised a series of validated questionnaires to obtain demographic information and menstrual function of the respondents, and to investigate their menstrual manipulation habits and perceptions on how their period-related symptoms affected their well-being, mood, energy and training tolerance. More than 80% of the cyclists reported that their period-related symptoms impacted upon training and 41% made training adjustments based on these symptoms. Two-thirds of respondents thought their training should be phase-controlled yet only half discussed their hormonal cycles with their coaches. Menstrual manipulation was predicted by reduced "workout tolerance" in these cyclists (odds ratio = 0.632). Half of the respondents reported compromised ability to tolerate high-intensity interval training with period-related symptoms. Period pain, increased irritability, lower energy levels and more sugar cravings were commonly reported but did not predict menstrual manipulation. The data indicated that period-related symptoms are present in Australian female cyclists across all levels of participation. However, the perceived impact to training and subsequent behavioural changes varied among individuals.

Predicting BMX Performance with Laboratory Measurements in Elite Riders.

In Bicycle Motocross (BMX) performance is determined by the riders' sprint ability and power output. Therefore, descriptive and predictive performance assessments through laboratory and field tests are of interest. Twelve members of the Spanish BMX National Team performed 4 laboratory tests, including 1RM in squat, a Wingate test, a 5x6-s repeated sprint test (RST) and a force-velocity profile test. These tests were compared with the riders' field performance using the best lap of a simulated BMX competition consisting of 6 all-out laps on a standard BMX track. Pearson's correlation and linear regression analysis showed a significant association (p < 0.05) between the riders' field performance and the 1RM (r = 0.84; R2 = 0.65), the peak power output in the RST (r = 0.87; R2 = 0.78) and the peak power, the mean power and the lactate production in the Wingate test (r = 0.68-0.77; R2 = 0.14-0.65), as well as maximal power from the force-velocity profile (r = 0.71; R2 = 0.53). The laboratory tests included in this study can show information about BMX riders' performance, with the highest values for the peak power obtained in the repeated sprint test (78% of the variance in common).

Racing weight and resistance training: perceptions and practices in trained male cyclists.

Objectives: This study sought to investigate the perceptions and practices of achieving 'race weight' in a population of trained male cyclists. A secondary focus was to investigate the use of gym-based strength training, a possible attenuator of the side effects associated with weight reduction.Methods: A total of n = 97 well-trained cyclists ranging from local club level to international standard completed an online survey capturing data on the aforementioned topics.Results: Forty-nine percent of respondents indicated they were unsatisfied with their current bodyweight, with a similar percentage across club, national and international level riders. Riders who identified as climbers had lower reported bodyweight; however, all categories of riders expressed a desire to reduce bodyweight by a similar percentage (1.9%, ± 3.4%; 90% CL). Seventy-seven percent of respondents indicated that they had recently tried or were currently trying to reduce bodyweight, most commonly by reducing food intake and avoiding sugary foods. Nine percent indicated they were using either supplements or medications to lower bodyweight, and 27% reported having sought advice from a health professional. A higher proportion of international riders engaged in strength training (85%), compared to national (50%) and club (55%) riders (p< 0.05). The most cited reasons for not strength training were time constraints and believing it was not beneficial to their cycling performance.Conclusion: These data suggest that trained male cyclists are a highly weight-conscious population who engage in a variety of practices to reduce weight. Practitioners should be aware of these tendencies, as they may carry significant health implications if poorly implemented.

Sprinting for the Win: Distribution of Power Output in Women's Professional Cycling.

PURPOSE: To examine the power-output distribution and sprint characteristics of professional female road cyclists. METHODS: A total of 31 race files, representing top 5 finishes, were collected from 7 professional female cyclists. Files were analyzed for sprint characteristics, including mean and peak power output, velocity, and duration. The final 20 min before the sprint was analyzed to determine the mean maximal power output (MMP) consistent with durations of 5, 15, 30, 60, 240, and 600 s. Throughout the race, the number of efforts for each duration exceeding 80% of its corresponding final 20-min MMP (MMP80) was determined. The number of 15-s efforts exceeding 80% of the mean final sprint power output (MSP80) was determined. RESULTS: Sprint finishes lasted 21.8 (6.7) s with mean and peak power outputs of 679 (101) and 886 (91) W, respectively. Throughout the race, additional 5-, 15-, and 30-s efforts above MMP80 were completed in the 5th compared with the 1st-4th quintiles of the race. The 60-s efforts were greater during the 5th quintile compared with the 1st, 2nd, and 4th quintiles, and during the 3rd compared with the 4th quintile. More 240-s efforts were recorded during the 5th compared with the 1st and 4th quintiles. About 82% of the 15-s efforts above MSP80 were completed in the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th quintiles of the race. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate the variable nature of women's professional cycling and the physical demands necessary for success, thus providing information that could enhance in-race decision making and the development of race-specific training programs.

The validity and intra-tester reliability of markerless motion capture to analyse kinematics of the BMX Supercross gate start.

The aim of this study was to quantify the validity and intra-tester reliability of a novel method of kinematic measurement. The measurement target was the joint angles of an athlete performing a BMX Supercross (SX) gate start action through the first 1.2 s of movement in situ on a BMX SX ramp using a standard gate start procedure. The method employed GoPro® Hero 4 Silver (GoPro Inc., USA) cameras capturing data at 120 fps 720 p on a 'normal' lens setting. Kinovea 0.8.15 (Kinovea.org, France) was used for analysis. Tracking data was exported and angles computed in Matlab (Mathworks®, USA). The gold standard 3D method for joint angle measurement could not safely be employed in this environment, so a rigid angle was used. Validity was measured to be within 2°. Intra-tester reliability was measured by the same tester performing the analysis twice with an average of 55 days between analyses. Intra-tester reliability was high, with an absolute error <6° and <9 frames (0.075 s) across all angles and time points for key positions, respectively. The methodology is valid within 2° and reliable within 6° for the calculation of joint angles in the first ~1.25 s.

Body composition of female road and track endurance cyclists: Normative values and typical changes.

The aims of this study were to describe normative values and seasonal variation of body composition in female cyclists comparing female road and track endurance cyclists, and to validate the use of anthropometry to monitor lean mass changes. Anthropometric profiles (seven site skinfolds) were measured over 16 years from 126 female cyclists. Lean mass index (LMI) was calculated as body weight × skinfolds(-x). The exponent (x) was calculated as the slope of the natural logarithm of body weight and skinfolds. Percentage changes in LMI were compared to lean mass changes measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in a subset of 25 road cyclists. Compared to sub-elite and elite cyclists, world class cyclists were (mean [95% CI]) 1.18 kg [0.46, 1.90] and 0.60 kg [0.05, 1.15] lighter and had skinfolds that were 7.4 mm [3.8, 11.0] and 4.6 mm [1.8, 7.4] lower, respectively. Body weight (0.41 kg [0.04, 0.77]) and skinfolds (4.0 mm [2.1, 6.0]) were higher in the off-season compared to the early-season. World class female road cyclists had lower body weight (6.04 kg [2.73, 9.35]) and skinfolds (11.5 mm [1.1, 21.9]) than track endurance cyclists. LMI (mean exponent 0.15 [0.13, 0.18]) explained 87% of the variance in DXA lean mass. In conclusion, higher performing female cyclists were lighter and leaner than their less successful peers, road cyclists were lighter and leaner than track endurance cyclists, and weight and skinfolds were lowest early in the season. LMI appears to be a reasonably valid tool for monitoring lean mass changes.

The effects of a calcium-rich pre-exercise meal on biomarkers of calcium homeostasis in competitive female cyclists: a randomised crossover trial.

Cycling is recognised as a sport in which there is a high incidence of poor bone health. Sweat calcium losses may contribute to this. PURPOSE: To examine whether a calcium-rich pre-exercise meal attenuates exercise-induced perturbations of bone calcium homeostasis caused by maintenance of sweat calcium losses. METHODS: Using a randomized, counterbalanced crossover design, 32 well-trained female cyclists completed two 90 min cycling trials separated by 1 day. Exercise trials were preceded 2 hours by either a calcium-rich (1352 ± 53 mg calcium) dairy based meal (CAL) or a control meal (CON; 46 ± 7 mg calcium). Blood was sampled pre-trial; pre-exercise; and immediately, 40 min, 100 min and 190 min post-exercise. Blood was analysed for ionized calcium and biomarkers of bone resorption (Cross Linked C-Telopeptide of Type I Collagen (CTX-I), Cross Linked C-Telopeptide of Type II Collagen (CTX-II), Parathyroid Hormone (PTH), and bone formation (Procollagen I N-Terminal Propeptide (PINP)) using the established enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. RESULTS: PTH and CTX-I increased from pre-exercise to post-exercise in both conditions but was attenuated in CAL (p < 0.001). PTH was 1.55 [1.20, 2.01] times lower in CAL immediately post-exercise and 1.45 [1.12, 1.88] times lower at 40 min post-exercise. CTX-I was 1.40 [1.15, 1.70] times lower in CAL at immediately post-exercise, 1.30 [1.07, 1.57] times lower at 40 min post-exercise and 1.22 [1.00, 1.48] times lower at 190 min post-exercise (p < 0.05). There was no significant interaction between pre-exercise meal condition and time point for CTX-II (p = 0.732) or PINP (p = 0.819). CONCLUSION: This study showed that a calcium-rich pre-exercise breakfast meal containing ~1350 mg of calcium consumed ~90 min before a prolonged and high intensity bout of stationary cycling attenuates the exercise induced rise in markers of bone resorption--PTH and CTX-I. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12614000675628.

The Virtual Short Physical Performance Battery.

BACKGROUND: Performance-based and self-report instruments of physical function are frequently used and provide complementary information. Identifying older adults with a mismatch between actual and perceived function has utility in clinical settings and in the design of interventions. Using novel, video-animated technology, the objective of this study was to develop a self-report measure that parallels the domains of objective physical function assessed by the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB)-the virtual SPPB (vSPPB). METHODS: The SPPB, vSPPB, the self-report Pepper Assessment Tool for Disability, the Mobility Assessment Tool-short form, and a 400-m walk test were administered to 110 older adults (mean age = 80.6±5.2 years). One-week test-retest reliability of the vSPPB was examined in 30 participants. RESULTS: The total SPPB (mean [±SD] = 7.7±2.8) and vSPPB (7.7±3.2) scores were virtually identical, yet moderately correlated (r = .601, p < .05). The component scores of the SPPB and vSPPB were also moderately correlated (all p values <.01). The vSPPB (intraclass correlation = .963, p < .05) was reliable; however, individuals with the lowest function overestimated their overall lower extremity function while participants of all functional levels overestimated their ability on chair stands, but accurately perceived their usual gait speed. CONCLUSION: In spite of the similarity between the SPPB and vSPPB, the moderate strength of the association between the two suggests that they offer unique perspectives on an older adult's physical function.

Race weight: perceptions of elite female road cyclists.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the satisfaction of elite female cyclists with their body weight (BW) in the context of race performance, the magnitude of BW manipulation, and the association of these variables with menstrual function. METHODS: Female competitors in the Australian National Road Cycling Championships (n = 32) and the Oceania Championships (n = 5) completed a questionnaire to identify current BW, BW fluctuations, perceived ideal BW for performance, frequency of weight consciousness, weight-loss techniques used, and menstrual regularity. RESULTS: All but 1 cyclist reported that female cyclists are "a weight-conscious population," and 54% reported having a desire to change BW at least once weekly; 62% reported that their current BW was not ideal for performance. Their perceived ideal BW was (mean ± SD) 1.6 ± 1.6 kg (2.5% ± 2.5%) less than their current weight (P < .01), and 73% reported that their career-lowest BW was either "beneficial" or "extremely beneficial" for performance. 65% reported successfully reducing BW in the previous 12 months with a mean loss of 2.4 ± 1.0 kg (4.1% ± 1.9%). The most common weight-loss technique was reduced energy intake (76%). Five cyclists (14%) had been previously diagnosed as having an eating disorder by a physician. Of the 18 athletes not using a hormonal contraceptive, 11 reported menstrual dysfunction (oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea). CONCLUSION: Elite Australian female cyclists are a weight-conscious population who may not be satisfied with their BW leading into a major competition and in some cases are frequently weight conscious.

Dairy-based preexercise meal does not affect gut comfort or time-trial performance in female cyclists.

Some athletes avoid dairy in the meal consumed before exercise due to fears about gastrointestinal discomfort. Regular exclusion of dairy foods may unnecessarily reduce intake of high quality proteins and calcium with possible implications for body composition and bone health. This study compared the effects of meals that included (Dairy) or excluded (Control) dairy foods on gastric comfort and subsequent cycling performance. Well-trained female cyclists (n = 32; mean ± SD; 24.3 ± 4.1 y; VO(2peak) 57.1 ± 4.9 ml/kg/min) completed two trials (randomized cross-over design) in which they consumed a meal (2 g/kg carbohydrate and 54 kJ/kg) 2 hr before a 90-min cycle session (80 min at 60% maximal aerobic power followed by a 10-min time trial; TT). The dairy meal contained 3 servings of dairy foods providing ~1350 mg calcium. Gut comfort and palatability were measured using questionnaires. Performance was measured as maximum mean power during the TT (MMP10(min)). There was no statistical or clinical evidence of an effect of meal type on MMP10(min) with a mean difference (Dairy - Control) of 4 W (95% CI [-2, 9]). There was no evidence of an association between pretrial gut comfort and meal type (p = .15) or between gut comfort delta scores and meal type postmeal (p = .31), preexercise (p = .17) or postexercise (p = .80). There was no statistical or clinical evidence of a difference in palatability between meal types. In summary, substantial amounts of dairy foods can be included in meals consumed before strenuous cycling without impairing either gut comfort or performance.

The effects of strength and power training on single-step balance recovery in older adults: a preliminary study.

Improving muscle strength and power may mitigate the effects of sarcopenia, but it is unknown if this improves an older adult's ability to recover from a large postural perturbation. Forward tripping is prevalent in older adults and lateral falls are important due to risk of hip fracture. We used a forward and a lateral single-step balance recovery task to examine the effects of strength training (ST) or power (PT) training on single-step balance recovery in older adults. Twenty older adults (70.8±4.4 years, eleven male) were randomly assigned to either a 6-week (three times/week) lower extremity ST or PT intervention. Maximum forward (FLean(max)) and lateral (LLean(max)) lean angle and strength and power in knee extension and leg press were assessed at baseline and follow-up. Fifteen participants completed the study (ST =7, PT =8). Least squares means (95% CI) for ΔFLean(max) (ST: +4.1° [0.7, 7.5]; PT: +0.6° [-2.5, 3.8]) and ΔLLean(max) (ST: +2.2° [0.4, 4.1]; PT: +2.6° [0.9, 4.4]) indicated no differences between groups following training. In exploratory post hoc analyses collapsed by group, ΔFLean(max) was +2.4° (0.1, 4.7) and ΔLLean(max) was +2.4° (1.2, 3.6). These improvements on the balance recovery tasks ranged from ~15%-30%. The results of this preliminary study suggest that resistance training may improve balance recovery performance, and that, in this small sample, PT did not lead to larger improvements in single-step balance recovery compared to ST.

Consistency of commercial devices for measuring elevation gain.

PURPOSE: To determine the consistency of commercially available devices used for measuring elevation gain in outdoor activities and sports. METHODS: Two separate observational validation studies were conducted. Garmin (Forerunner 310XT, Edge 500, Edge 750, and Edge 800; with and without elevation correction) and SRM (Power Control 7) devices were used to measure total elevation gain (TEG) over a 15.7-km mountain climb performed on 6 separate occasions (6 devices; study 1) and during a 138-km cycling event (164 devices; study 2). RESULTS: TEG was significantly different between the Garmin and SRM devices (P < .05). The between-devices variability in TEG was lower when measured with the SRM than with the Garmin devices (study 1: 0.2% and 1.5%, respectively). The use of the Garmin elevation-correction option resulted in a 5-10% increase in the TEG. CONCLUSIONS: While measurements of TEG were relatively consistent within each brand, the measurements differed between the SRM and Garmin devices by as much as 3%. Caution should be taken when comparing elevation-gain data recorded with different settings or with devices of different brands.

Energy expenditure of constant- and variable-intensity cycling: power meter estimates.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study is to compare the effects of constant- and variable-intensity cycling on gross efficiency (GE) and to compare estimates of energy expenditure (EE) made using indirect calorimetry (CAL) with estimates derived from commercially available power meters. METHODS: Nine national team female road cyclists completed a GE test (GEtest = 4 min at approximately 45%, approximately 55%, approximately 65%, and approximately 75% maximal aerobic power (MAP)) before and after 10.5 min of either constant- (CON)- or variable- (VAR)-intensity cycling averaging approximately 55% MAP. GE measured before, after, and during CON and VAR cycling was compared. Total EE (kJ) for 10.5 min of VAR cycling was estimated using indirect CAL and compared with estimates on the basis of mechanical power [Schoberer Rad Messtechnik (SRM)] using the group mean GE, each athlete's mean GE, and each athlete's power to GE regression. RESULTS: There was no effect of VAR on GEtests (P = 0.74). GE reduced from 19.1% ± 0.4% (mean ± SE) during the pretrial GEtests to 18.7% ± 0.4% during the posttrial GEtests (P < 0.05) in both conditions. Differences in GE (mean ± SD) measured during CON (18.4% ± 1.6%) and VAR cycling (18.6% ± 1.1%) were trivial (P = 0.28). SRM-based estimates of EE were most accurate when using individual athlete's power GE regression using Pre- and Post-VAR GEtest data combined (Δ(Equation is included in full-text article.)(%) ± 90% CI, 0.3 ± 0.8; R 0.98, P <0.001). Group mean estimates were within approximately 1% of CAL, although individual errors were approximately 11%. CONCLUSION: Findings support the use of calibrated power meters for estimating cycling EE. For trained female road cyclists, total mechanical work (kJ) multiplied by 5.3 (GE = 19%) provides a valid estimation of total EE during variable-intensity cycling <75% MAP, although determining each athlete's GE improves accuracy greatly.

Increased lean mass with reduced fat mass in an elite female cyclist returning to competition: case study.

Body composition in a female road cyclist was measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (5 occasions) and anthropometry (10 occasions) at the start of the season (Dec to Mar), during a period of chronic fatigue associated with poor weight management (Jun to Aug), and in the following months of recovery and retraining (Aug to Nov). Dietary manipulation involved a modest reduction in energy availability to 30-40 kcal · kg fat-free mass(-1) · d(-1) and an increased intake of high-quality protein, particularly after training (20 g). Through the retraining period, total body mass decreased (-2.82 kg), lean mass increased (+0.88 kg), and fat mass decreased (-3.47 kg). Hemoglobin mass increased by 58.7 g (8.4%). Maximal aerobic- and anaerobic-power outputs were returned to within 2% of preseason values. The presented case shows that through a subtle energy restriction associated with increased protein intake and sufficient energy intake during training, fat mass can be reduced with simultaneous increases in lean mass, performance gains, and improved health.