Life events are important in the course of hopelessness-a 2-year follow-up study in a general population.

BACKGROUND: The association between life events and hopelessness in a general population is unknown. AIM: The aim of this study was to examine the course of hopelessness and how positive and negative life events are associated with it. METHOD: This was a 2- year follow-up study among general population adults, excluding any with a mental disorder. The impact of 15 occasional life events during the follow-up was assessed and the course of hopelessness measured with the Beck Hopelessness Scale (HS). RESULTS: Four percent of the study subjects with no hopelessness at baseline and 56% of those with hopelessness at baseline reported hopelessness on follow-up. In multiple logistic regression analyses, a notable worsening of the subjective financial situation was revealed as the most important life event, both in becoming hopeless during the follow-up (OR 5.07; 95% CI 2.20-11.7) and in continued hopelessness (OR 7.51, 95% CI 2.19-25.8). Moreover, considerable interpersonal conflicts at work (OR 3.29, 95% CI 1.17-9.27) were associated with becoming hopeless. However, a notable positive change in common living conditions (OR 0.16, 95% CI 0.04-0.74) was found to be a protective factor against becoming hopeless. All these variables remained significant even when adjusted for change in depression scores (BDI). CONCLUSION: Hopelessness may be persistent in a general population. The impact of life events, especially a notable worsening of the subjective financial situation, is important in becoming or remaining hopeless.

Gender differences in the association of adult hopelessness with adverse childhood experiences.

BACKGROUND: The impact of childhood traumatic events on long-term psychological development has been widely studied. Nevertheless, little research has been carried out on possible associations between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and hopelessness in adulthood, and whether any gender differences exist. AIM: The aim of this study was to examine the association between ACEs (poor relationship between parents, unhappiness of childhood home, hard parenting, physical punishment, domestic violence, alcohol abuse in primary family) and current hopelessness without any mental disorder in a general population sample. METHOD: 1598 adults (43 % were men), aged 25-64 years, completed self-report measures to assess ACEs and hopelessness by means of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (HS). Logistic regression was used to adjust for the effects of sociodemographic factors on the association between the cumulative number of ACEs and hopelessness. RESULTS: Whereas several bivariate associations were found between ACEs and hopelessness, none of them remained significant in multivariate analysis. However, men who reported three or more ACEs were 2.79 times (95 % CI 1.17-6.63) and women 2.19 times (95 % CI 1.04-4.65) more likely to be hopeless compared with those without any ACEs. In women (OR 2.25, 95 % CI 1.01-5.00), but not in men, this relationship remained significant after adjusting for several current covariates. CONCLUSION: Clustering of ACEs may have long-lasting effects by increasing the risk of hopelessness in adulthood, especially in women. Increased awareness of the frequency of ACEs and their subsequent consequences, such as hopelessness, may encourage health care professionals to undertake preventive work in primary and mental health care.