Development and validation of food frequency questionnaire for food and nutrient intakes of adults in Butajira, Southern Ethiopia.

We developed a culturally-specific Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) to the Ethiopian context and evaluate its validity in comparison to two 24-h dietary recalls (24-HRs) of food and nutrient intake. To evaluate the validity of a culturally-specific FFQ against two 24-HRs, we used a paired t-test, Wilcoxon-signed-rank test, Correlation coefficients, cross-classification, κ and Bland-Altman analysis. The FFQ was obtained 15 d after the second 24-HR was completed. A total of 105 adults, of which 43 (41 %) were men and 62 (59 %) women, aged 20-65 years participated in this present study. Mean energy and macronutrient intake obtained from the FFQ were significantly higher than those obtained from the mean of two 24-HRs. For energy and nutrient intakes, the crude correlation ranged from 0⋅05 (total fat) to 0⋅49 (vitamin B1). The de-attenuated correlation ranged from to 0⋅10 (total fat) to 0⋅80 (vitamin A). For the majority of food groups, no significant difference was observed in the median intake of food and nutrients. Crude correlation for food groups ranged from 0⋅12 (egg) to 0⋅78 (legumes). The de-attenuated correlation ranged from 0⋅24 (egg) to 1⋅00 (meat/poultry/fish and dairy). The FFQ is valid to assess and rank individuals in terms of intake of most food groups according to high and low intake categories.

Cultural adaptation and validation of the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire in Ethiopia.

Eating behaviours have been associated both with being underweight or overweight and poor growth. The Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) is a widely used measure of child eating behaviours. The instrument is, however, mostly validated in high-income countries, with a scarcity of evidence among developing countries such as Ethiopia. The present study aims to assess the cultural adaptability and validity of the CEBQ to be used in Ethiopia. We conducted a school-based cross-sectional study among 542 caregivers of children aged 3-6 years in selected preschools. Tests of factorial validity, convergent validity and reliability were performed. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis model indicated that eight subscales provided the best fit (root-mean-square error of approximation = 0⋅05 (90 % CI 0⋅045, 0⋅055); Comparative Fit Index = 0⋅92 and Tucker-Lewis Index = 0⋅90) after seven items from the original CEBQ were removed. Convergent validity with child's weight status was found for emotional overeating, food fussiness, satiety responsiveness and slowness in eating subscales. Reliability, measured using Cronbach's α, provided values between 0⋅50 and 0⋅79. The eight-factor structure of the CEBQ showed adequate content validity and provided factorial, discriminant and convergent validity among preschool children. Further replication of the study among low-income countries is essential to improve the literature on children's eating behaviours.

Caregivers' feeding practices in Ethiopia: association with caregiver and child characteristics.

Feeding is a source of interaction and communication. It affects children's physical and psychological/emotional development. The present study aims to examine the association between caregiver and child characteristics and caregivers' feeding practices among preschools in Addis Ababa. We conducted a cross-sectional study among 542 caregivers of children aged between 3 and 6 years old in selected preschools. We used the Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ) to measure caregivers' feeding practices. Multiple linear regression was used for analysis. Caregivers who had higher levels of perceived feeding responsibility (ß 0⋅20, P < 0⋅001), who were more concerned about their child being overweight (ß 0⋅11, P < 0⋅001) and who had more depressive symptoms (ß 0⋅23, P 0⋅05) were associated with food restriction practice. Caregivers who were less concerned about their child being overweight (ß -0⋅10, P < 0⋅001) and who had higher levels of perceived feeding responsibility (ß 0⋅25, P < 0⋅001) were associated with pressure to eat practice. Caregivers who had higher education (ß 0⋅29, P < 0⋅05), who had higher levels of perceived feeding responsibility (ß 0⋅47, P < 0⋅001), who were more concerned about their child being overweight (ß 0⋅15, P < 0⋅001) and who were less concerned about their child underweight (ß -0⋅06, P < 0⋅05) were associated with monitoring feeding practice. In addition, as the children have gotten older (ß 0⋅08, P < 0⋅05), there is increased use of monitoring feeding practice. This study is one of few studies that show the association between caregiver and child characteristics and feeding practices in developing countries such as Ethiopia. It is essential to include responsive feeding components in national nutritional programmes to improve preschool children's nutritional status in Ethiopia.

The relationship between caregivers' feeding practices and children's eating behaviours among preschool children in Ethiopia.

Preschool age is a time when distinct eating behaviours are formed. Eating behaviours have been associated with underweight and poor growth as well as with overweight. However, the relationship between caregivers' feeding practices and children's eating behaviours remains poorly understood in developing countries. This study aims to evaluate the association between caregivers' feeding practices and eating behaviours among preschool children in Ethiopia. We conducted a school-based cross-sectional study among 542 caregivers of children aged between three and six years old. We used the Children Eating Behaviour Questionnaire and the Child Feeding Questionnaire to measure eating behaviour and caregivers' feeding practices respectively. A multiple linear regression was fitted to determine the association between caregivers' feeding practices and the multiple scales of children's eating behaviour while adjusting for potential confounders. Children whose caregivers practice food restriction tended to be more food responsive (ß = .23, p < .001), tend to emotionally overeat (ß = .09, p < .01), enjoy food more (ß = 0.23, p < .001) and have more desire to drink (ß = .24, p < .001). Meanwhile, children whose caregivers practiced pressure to eat were fussier about food (ß = .09, p < .001), were more satiety responsive (ß = .13, p < .001) and tended to eat slower (ß = .10, p < .01). In Ethiopia, where under- and over-nutrition coexist among pre-school children, the results from this study underscore the importance of investigating eating behaviours at an early age, as these eating styles may contribute to children's poor nutritional status. It is also essential to include appropriate child eating behaviour and specific feeding practices components, together with responsive feeding in national nutritional programmes to improve the nutritional status of children aged 24-59 months.