Immunohistochemical profile of galectin-8 expression in benign and malignant tumors of epithelial, mesenchymatous and adipous origins, and of the nervous system.

This study aims to investigate whether the immunohistochemical expression of galectin-8 could be used as a diagnostic marker in tumor tissues of various histogenetic origins including specimens from epithelial (n=145), mesenchymatous (n=16), adipous (n=10) and central and peripheral nervous system (n=25) tissue, and 4 mesotheliomas. Immunohistochemical reactions were carried out with a polyclonal anti-galectin-8 antibody and histological slides from tissues derived from the files of the Laboratory of Anatomopathology of University Erasmus Hospital, Brussels. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues of 45 normal cases as well as 41 benign and 114 malignant tumors were studied. Marked decreases in immunohistochemical galectin-8 expression were observed in colon (p=0.001), pancreas (p=0.007), liver (p=0.0008), skin (p=0.002) and larynx (p=0.02) tissue when comparing malignant tissue to normal tissue and/or benign tumors. The reverse relationship was observed for breast tissue (p=0.007). No statistically significant differences (p>0.05) were detected when comparing normal tissue and/or benign to malignant tumors in lung, bladder, kidney, prostate and stomach tissue. Significant galectin-8 expression was also measured in non-epithelial tissue including tumors of the central and peripheral nervous system as well as in skeletal muscle and mesotheliomas. Immunohistochemical monitoring of galectin-8 thus reveals an organ-type-dependent regulation of expression upon malignant transformation of various tissue types of epithelial origin. This observation will prompt further studies to delineate any relationship with prognosis.

Critical role for the docking-protein FRS2 alpha in FGF receptor-mediated signal transduction pathways.

The docking protein FRS2 alpha has been implicated as a mediator of signaling via fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs). We have demonstrated that targeted disruption of FRS2 alpha gene causes severe impairment in mouse development resulting in embryonal lethality at E7.0--E7.5. Experiments with FRS2 alpha-deficient fibroblasts demonstrate that FRS2 alpha plays a critical role in FGF-induced mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase stimulation, phosphatidylinositol-3 (PI-3) kinase activation, chemotactic response, and cell proliferation. Following FGF stimulation, tyrosine phosphorylated FRS2 alpha functions as a site for coordinated assembly of a multiprotein complex that includes Gab1 and the effector proteins that are recruited by this docking protein. Furthermore, we demonstrate that different tyrosine phosphorylation sites on FRS2 alpha are responsible for mediating different FGF-induced biological responses. These experiments establish the central role of FRS2 alpha in signaling via FGFRs and demonstrate that FRS2 alpha mediates multiple FGFR-dependent signaling pathways critical for embryonic development.

Docking protein FRS2 links the protein tyrosine kinase RET and its oncogenic forms with the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade.

The receptor tyrosine kinase RET functions as the signal transducing receptor for the GDNF (for "glial cell-derived neurotrophic factors") family of ligands. Mutations in the RET gene were implicated in Hirschsprung disease (HSCR), multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2), and thyroid carcinomas. In this report we demonstrate that the docking protein FRS2 is tyrosine phosphorylated by ligand-stimulated and by constitutively activated oncogenic forms of RET. Complex formation between RET and FRS2 is mediated by binding of the phosphotyrosine-binding domain of FRS2 to pY1062, a residue in RET that also functions as a binding site for Shc. However, overexpression of FRS2 but not Shc potentiates mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase activation by RET oncoproteins. We demonstrate that oncogenic RET-PTC proteins are associated with FRS2 constitutively, leading to tyrosine phosphorylation of FRS2, MAP kinase stimulation, and cell proliferation. However, loss-of-function HSCR-associated RET mutants exhibit impaired FRS2 binding and reduced MAP kinase activation. These experiments demonstrate that FRS2 couples both ligand-regulated and oncogenic forms of RET, with the MAP kinase signaling cascade as part of the response of RET under normal biological conditions and pathological conditions, such as MEN 2 and papillary thyroid carcinomas.

Stimulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase by fibroblast growth factor receptors is mediated by coordinated recruitment of multiple docking proteins.

The docking protein FRS2 is a major downstream effector that links fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and nerve growth factor receptors with the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade. In this report, we demonstrate that FRS2 also plays a pivotal role in FGF-induced recruitment and activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase). We demonstrate that tyrosine phosphorylation of FRS2alpha leads to Grb2-mediated complex formation with the docking protein Gab1 and its tyrosine phosphorylation, resulting in the recruitment and activation of PI3-kinase. Furthermore, Grb2 bound to tyrosine-phosphorylated FRS2 through its SH2 domain interacts primarily via its carboxyl-terminal SH3 domain with a proline-rich region in Gab1 and via its amino-terminal SH3 domain with the nucleotide exchange factor Sos1. Assembly of FRS2alpha:Grb2:Gab1 complex induced by FGF stimulation results in activation of PI3-kinase and downstream effector proteins such as the S/T kinase Akt, whose cellular localization and activity are regulated by products of PI3-kinase. These experiments reveal a unique mechanism for generation of signal diversity by growth factor-induced coordinated assembly of a multidocking protein complex that can activate the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade to induce cell proliferation and differentiation, and PI3-kinase to activate a mediator of a cell survival pathway.

Galectin-8 functions as a matricellular modulator of cell adhesion.

The interaction of cells with the extracellular matrix regulates cell adhesion and motility. Here we demonstrate that different cell types adhere and spread when cultured in serum-free medium on immobilized galectin-8, a mammalian beta-galactoside-binding protein. At maximal doses, galectin-8 is equipotent to fibronectin in promoting cell adhesion and spreading. Cell adhesion to immobilized galectin-8 is mediated by sugar-protein interactions with integrins, and galectin-8 triggers integrin-mediated signaling cascades including Tyr phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and paxillin. Cell adhesion is potentiated in the presence of Mn(2+), whereas it is interrupted in the presence of soluble galectin-8, integrin beta(1) inhibitory antibodies, EDTA, or thiodigalactoside but not by RGD peptides. Furthermore, cells readily adhere onto immobilized monoclonal galectin-8 antibodies, which are equipotent to integrin antibodies in promoting cell adhesion. Cell adhesion to immobilized galectin-8 is partially inhibited by serum proteins, suggesting that complex formation between immobilized galectin-8 and serum components generates a matrix that is less supportive of cell adhesion. Accordingly, cell motility on immobilized galectin-8 readily takes place in the presence of serum. Truncation of the C-terminal half of galectin-8, including one of its two carbohydrate recognition domains, largely abolishes its ability to modulate cell adhesion, indicating that both carbohydrate recognition domains are required to maintain a functional form of galectin-8. Collectively, our findings implicate galectin-8 as a physiological modulator of cell adhesion. When immobilized, it functions as a matrix protein equipotent to fibronectin in promoting cell adhesion by ligation and clustering of cell surface integrin receptors. In contrast, when present in excess as a soluble ligand, galectin-8 (like fibronectin) forms a complex with integrins that negatively regulates cell adhesion. Because of its dual effects on the adhesive properties of the cells and its association with fibronectin, galectin-8 might be considered a novel type of matricellular protein.

Protein kinases in drug discovery and development.

The Protein Kinases in Drug Discovery and Development meeting highlighted protein kinases as validated therapeutic targets in many types of disease, especially cancer. Drugs designed to inhibit protein kinase activity were widely tested in preclinical and clinical evaluation, demonstrating significant efficacy with acceptable toxicity profiles. More than 600 kinases are encoded by the human genome, some of which are already well established as validated targets due to extensive scientific research from both academic institutions and industrial companies. As demonstrated by several speakers during the meeting, different diseases exhibit mutations or over-expression of the same kinase. Therefore, a drug designed to inhibit these specific kinases can potentially be used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of more then one disease. The major strategy employed by most companies today in drug discovery is using genomic information, together with clinical research, to identify novel potential targets. A drug discovery project is then established around the chosen target kinase, in order to identify, optimize and deliver novel potential drugs to clinical trials.

Galectin-8 binding to integrins inhibits cell adhesion and induces apoptosis.

The interaction of cells with the extracellular matrix regulates cell adhesion, motility, growth, survival and differentiation through integrin-mediated signal transduction. Here we demonstrate that galectin-8, a secreted mammalian (beta)-galactoside binding protein, inhibits adhesion of human carcinoma (1299) cells to plates coated with integrin ligands, and induces cell apoptosis. Pretreatment of the cells with Mn(2+), which increases the affinity of integrins for their ligands, abolished the inhibitory effects of galectin-8. The inhibitory effects of galectin-8 were specific and were not mimicked by plant lectins or other galectins (galectin-1 and galectin-3). In accordance with its anti-adhesive effects, transfection of galectin-8 cDNA into 1299 cells significantly reduced (by 75%) colony formation, when compared to the number of colonies formed by cells transfected with an empty vector. Affinity chromatography over immobilized galectin-8 indicated that few membrane proteins interacted with galectin-8 in a sugar-dependent manner. Microsequencing and western immunoblotting revealed that (alpha)(3)(beta)(1 )integrin derived from 1299 as well as other cells (e.g. HeLa and human endothelial cells) is a major galectin-8 binding-protein. Furthermore, immunoprecipitation and immunohistochemical studies suggested that endogenous galectin-8, secreted from 1299 cells, forms complexes with (alpha)(3)(beta)(1) integrins expressed on the surface of 1299 cells. Galectin-8 also interacts with other members of the integrin family, like (alpha)(6)(beta)(1 )integrins. In contrast, galectin-8 only minimally interacts with (alpha)(4 )or (beta)(3 )integrins. We propose that galectin-8 is an integrin binding-protein that interacts to a different extent with several, but not all members of the integrin family. Binding of galectin-8 modulates integrin interactions with the extracellular matrix and thus regulates cell adhesion and cell survival.

FRS2 proteins recruit intracellular signaling pathways by binding to diverse targets on fibroblast growth factor and nerve growth factor receptors.

The docking protein FRS2 was implicated in the transmission of extracellular signals from the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) or nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors to the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade. The two members of the FRS2 family, FRS2alpha and FRS2beta, are structurally very similar. Each is composed of an N-terminal myristylation signal, a phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain, and a C-terminal tail containing multiple binding sites for the SH2 domains of the adapter protein Grb2 and the protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp2. Here we show that the PTB domains of both the alpha and beta isoforms of FRS2 bind directly to the FGF or NGF receptors. The PTB domains of the FRS2 proteins bind to a highly conserved sequence in the juxtamembrane region of FGFR1. While FGFR1 interacts with FRS2 constitutively, independent of ligand stimulation and tyrosine phosphorylation, NGF receptor (TrkA) binding to FRS2 is strongly dependent on receptor activation. Complex formation with TrkA is dependent on phosphorylation of Y490, a canonical PTB domain binding site that also functions as a binding site for Shc (NPXpY). Using deletion and alanine scanning mutagenesis as well as peptide competition assays, we demonstrate that the PTB domains of the FRS2 proteins specifically recognize two different primary structures in two different receptors in a phosphorylation-dependent or -independent manner. In addition, NGF-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of FRS2alpha is diminished in cells that overexpress a kinase-inactive mutant of FGFR1. This experiment suggests that FGFR1 may regulate signaling via NGF receptors by sequestering a common key element which both receptors utilize for transmitting their signals. The multiple interactions mediated by FRS2 appear to play an important role in target selection and in defining the specificity of several families of receptor tyrosine kinases.

Binding of Shp2 tyrosine phosphatase to FRS2 is essential for fibroblast growth factor-induced PC12 cell differentiation.

FRS2 is a lipid-anchored docking protein that plays an important role in linking fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and nerve growth factor receptors with the Ras/mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathway. In this report, we demonstrate that FRS2 forms a complex with the N-terminal SH2 domain of the protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 in response to FGF stimulation. FGF stimulation induces tyrosine phosphorylation of Shp2, leading to the formation of a complex containing Grb2 and Sos1 molecules. In addition, a mutant FRS2 deficient in both Grb2 and Shp2 binding induces a weak and transient MAP kinase response and fails to induce PC12 cell differentiation in response to FGF stimulation. Furthermore, FGF is unable to induce differentiation of PC12 cells expressing an FRS2 point mutant deficient in Shp2 binding. Finally, we demonstrate that the catalytic activity of Shp2 is essential for sustained activation of MAP kinase and for potentiation of FGF-induced PC12 cell differentiation. These experiments demonstrate that FRS2 recruits Grb2 molecules both directly and indirectly via complex formation with Shp2 and that Shp2 plays an important role in FGF-induced PC12 cell differentiation.

A lipid-anchored Grb2-binding protein that links FGF-receptor activation to the Ras/MAPK signaling pathway.

Activation of the Ras/MAPK signaling cascade is essential for growth factor-induced cell proliferation and differentiation. In this report, we describe the purification, cloning, and characterization of a novel protein, designated FRS2, that is tyrosine phosphorylated and binds to Grb2/Sos in response to FGF or NGF stimulation. We find that FRS2 is myristylated and that this modification is essential for membrane localization, tyrosine phosphorylation, Grb2/Sos recruitment, and MAPK activation. FRS2 functions as a lipid-anchored docking protein that targets signaling molecules to the plasma membrane in response to FGF stimulation to link receptor activation with the MAPK and other signaling pathways essential for cell growth and differentiation. Finally, we demonstrate that FRS2 is closely related and probably indentical to SNT, the long-sought target of FGF and NGF receptors.

p75, a member of the heat shock protein family, undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation in response to oxidative stress.

The combination of H2O2 and vanadate generates aqueous peroxovanadium (pV) species, which are effective cell-permeable oxidants, and potent inhibitors of protein-tyrosine phosphatases. As a result, treatment of intact cells with pV compounds significantly enhances protein Tyr phosphorylation. Here we demonstrate that treatment of intact rat hepatoma Fao cells with pV markedly enhances Tyr phosphorylation of a 75-kDa protein, termed pp75. Amino-terminal sequencing of pp75 revealed that this protein is a member of the 70-75-kDa heat shock protein family, which includes PBP-74, glucose-related protein (GRP)-75, and mortalin. Tyr phosphorylation of pp75 is selective, because other proteins that belong to the heat shock protein 70 family, such as GRP-72, Bip (GRP-78), and HSC-70 fail to undergo Tyr phosphorylation when cells are treated with pV. Our findings suggest that heat shock proteins such as pp75 may undergo tyrosine phosphorylation when intact cells are subjected to oxidative stress induced by pV compounds.

Interaction between the insulin receptor and its downstream effectors. Use of individually expressed receptor domains for structure/function analysis.

A structural analysis has been carried out to determine which part of the intracellular domain of the insulin receptor (IR) beta subunit is involved in direct interaction with the receptor substrates IRS-1 and Shc. Toward this end, the juxtamembrane (JM) domain (amino acids 943-984) and the carboxyl-terminal (CT) region (amino acids 1245-1 331) of IR were expressed in bacteria as (His)6-fusion peptides, and their interaction with IRS-1 and Shc was studied. We could demonstrate that the CT region of IR was sufficient to bind Shc, although significant, but much lower binding of Shc to the JM region could be detected as well. Furthermore, in vitro Tyr phosphorylation of the CT region potentiated its interactions with Shc 2-fold. In contrast, the JM region, but not the CT domain of the IR, was sufficient to mediate interactions between the IR and IRS-1. These interactions did not involve the pleckstrin homology (PH) region of IRS-1, since an IRS-1 mutant, in which four "blocks" of the PH domain (Pro5-Pro65) were deleted, interacted with the JM region of IR with the same efficiency as native IRS-1. These results suggest that the IR interacts with its downstream effectors through distinct receptor regions, and that autophosphorylation of Tyr residues located at the CT domain of the IR can modulate these interactions.

Tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 in vivo depends upon the presence of its pleckstrin homology region.

To characterize the structural basis for the interactions between the insulin receptor (IR) and its major substrate, insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), a segment of the NH2-terminal region of IRS-1 (Pro5-Pro65) was deleted. This region contains the first four conserved boxes of a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain, located at the NH2-terminal part of IRS-1. COS-7 cells were then cotransfected with the genes coding for IR and a wild-type (WT) or a mutated form of IRS-1. IRS-1 delta PH underwent significantly reduced insulin-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation compared with WT IRS-1. The reduced in vivo tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 delta PH was accompanied by reduced association between IRS-1 delta PH and its downstream effector p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase. In contrast, both WT IRS-1 and IRS-1 delta PH underwent comparable insulin-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation in vitro when incubated with partially purified insulin receptor kinase. These findings suggest that the overall structure of IRS-1 is not altered by deletion of its PH domain and that the PH domain is not the main site for protein-protein interactions between the insulin receptor and IRS-1, at least in vitro. In conclusion, the PH region might facilitate in vivo binding of IRS-1 to membrane phospholipids or other cellular constituents in close proximity to the IR, whereas the actual interactions with the IR are presumably mediated through other domains of the IRS-1 molecule. This could account for the fact that partial deletion of the PH domain selectively impairs the in vivo interactions between the insulin receptor and IRS-1, whereas their in vitro interactions remain unaffected.

Modulation of protein tyrosine phosphorylation in rat insular cortex after conditioned taste aversion training.

Protein tyrosine phosphorylation is a major signal transduction pathway involved in cellular metabolism, growth, and differentiation. Recent data indicate that tyrosine phosphorylation also plays a role in neuronal plasticity. We are using conditioned taste aversion, a fast and robust associative learning paradigm subserved among other brain areas by the insular cortex, to investigate molecular correlates of learning and memory in the rat cortex. In conditioned taste aversion, rats learn to associate a novel taste (e.g., saccharin) with delayed poisoning (e.g., by LiCl injection). Here we report that after conditioned taste aversion training, there is a rapid and marked increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of a set of proteins in the insular cortex but not in other brain areas. A major protein so modulated, of 180 kDa, is abundant in a membrane fraction and remains modulated for more than an hour after training. Exposure of the rats to the novel taste alone results in only a small modulation of the aforementioned proteins whereas administration of the malaise-inducing agent per se has no effect. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of modulation of protein tyrosine phosphorylation in the brain after a behavioral experience.

Galectin-8. A new rat lectin, related to galectin-4.

A protein of 35 kDa which has the characteristic properties of galectins (S-type lectins) was cloned from rat liver cDNA expression library. Since names for galectins 1-7 were already assigned, this new protein was named galectin-8. Three lines of evidence demonstrate that galectin-8 is indeed a novel galectin: (i) its deduced amino acid sequence contains two domains with conserved motifs that are implicated in the carbohydrate binding of galectins, (ii) in vitro translation products of galectin-8 cDNA or bacterially expressed recombinant galectin-8 are biologically active and possess sugar binding and hemagglutination activity, and (iii) a protein of the expected size (34 kDa) that binds to lactosyl-Sepharose and reacts with galectin-8-specific antibodies is present in rat liver and comprises approximately 0.025% of the total Triton X-100-soluble hepatic proteins. Overall, galectin-8 is structurally related (34% identity) to galectin-4, a soluble rat galectin with two carbohydrate-binding domains in the same polypeptide chain, joined by a link peptide. Nonetheless, several important features distinguish these two galectins: (i) Northern blot analysis revealed that, unlike galectin-4 that is confined to the intestine and stomach, galectin-8 is expressed in liver, kidney, cardiac muscle, lung, and brain; (ii) unlike galectin-4, but similar to galectins-1 and -2, galectin-8 contains 4 Cys residues; (iii) the link peptide of galectin-8 is unique and bears no similarity to any known protein; (iv) the N-terminal carbohydrate-binding region of galectin-8 contains a unique WG-E-I motif instead of the consensus WG-E-R/K motif implicated as playing an essential role in sugar-binding of all galectins. Together with galectin-4, galectin-8 therefore represents a subfamily of galectins consisting of a tandem repeat of structurally different carbohydrate recognition domains within a single polypeptide chain.

Hepatic tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins identified and localized following in vivo inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases: effects of H2O2 and vanadate administration into rat livers.

Injection of a combination of H2O2 and vanadate (H/V) into the portal vein of rat livers resulted in inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatase activity and led to a dramatic enhanced in vivo protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Some of the phosphorylated proteins were identified as the beta-subunit of the insulin receptor, the insulin receptor substrate 1 (pp185), PLC-gamma (pp145), and a 100 kDa PLC-gamma-associated protein. Immunofluorescense and immune electron microscopy of frozen liver sections with anti-P-Tyr antibodies revealed that most of the tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins are localized in close proximity to the plasma membrane in intercellular adherence junctions and tight junction regions. This close in vivo association between membranal protein tyrosine kinases, their target proteins, and cytoskeletal elements could enable formation of 'signaling complexes' which may play a role in transmembrane signal transduction. By affinity chromatography over immobilized anti-P-Tyr antibodies, a large number of these tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins were partially purified.

Insulin and insulinomimetic agents induce activation of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase upon its association with pp185 (IRS-1) in intact rat livers.

The major cytosolic substrate of the insulin receptor is a 185-kDa phosphoprotein (IRS-1) that contains multiple putative attachment sites for the p85 alpha regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K). To examine the possible interaction of pp185 with p85 alpha in vivo, we injected insulin or insulinomimetic agents (a combination of H2O2 and vanadate (H/V)) into the portal vein of anesthetized rats. IN this model system, H/V treatment and, to a lesser extent, injection of insulin resulted in rapid and sustained tyrosine phosphorylation of multiple cellular proteins, including pp185/IRS-1. The latter was found to undergo specific association with the p85 alpha regulatory subunit of PI3K but not with two other proteins that contain src homology domains. As p85 alpha was not detectably phosphorylated on tyrosine residues and did not appear to interact directly with the insulin receptor, we conclude that tyrosine phosphorylation of pp185 promotes its association with p85 alpha and the catalytic subunit of PI3K. The recruitment of the holoenzyme may also involve its enzymatic activation and thus constitute an important step in the transduction of insulin signals.

pH-dependent pore formation properties of pardaxin analogues.

The interaction of pardaxin, a shark-repellent neurotoxin, and its charge-modified analogues with vesicles and human erythrocytes is described. The following six analogues and derivatives were synthesized by a solid phase method: [Glu8, Glu16]pardaxin, [N1-succinamido,Glu8,Glu16]pardaxin, [N1,Lys8,Lys16-triacetyl]pardaxin, des-[1----9]pardaxin (Shai, Y., Bach, D., and Yanovsky, A. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 20202-20209), and des-[1----9] [Glu16]pardaxin. The relative hydrophobic characteristics of the analogues were examined using reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. The pH-dependent spectroscopic and functional characteristics of the analogues were also investigated at either neutral or acidic pH. Spectroscopic characterization was achieved by measuring circular dichroism both before and after binding to vesicles, at either neutral or acidic pH. The ability of the peptides to dissipate a diffusion potential, to cause calcein release or the pH-dependent release of 8-aminonaphthalene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid disodium salt/p-xylene-bis[pyridinium bromide] from sonicated unilamellar liposomes, as well as measurements of cytolytic activity on human erythrocytes, served to functionally characterize the peptides. We show a direct correlation between alpha-helical content, the analogues' hydrophobicity, and their pore-forming properties at the different pH values tested. We also demonstrate that the charge of the N terminus and of the peptide backbone, but not of the C terminus, affects the secondary structure as well as the activities of the analogues. Finally, we show that the cytolytic activity of pardaxin at neutral pH is not retained by any of the analogues.