N-Substituted Azacalixphyrins: Synthesis, Properties, and Self-Assembly.

Pre- and postintroduction of substituents with respect to the macrocyclization step leads to previously unknown N-substituted azacalixphyrins. The stepwise synthetic approach has been studied in detail to highlight the key role of the N-substituents of the precursors and/or intermediates in terms of reactivity. Based on a combined experimental and theoretical investigation, the relationship between the properties of the macrocycles and their degree of substitution is rationalized. Depending on the nature of the N-substituents, the formation of supramolecular ribbon-like structures could also be observed, as demonstrated by combined TEM, SEM, AFM, and FTIR experiments.

Discovery of novel human aquaporin-1 blockers.

Human aquaporin-1 (hAQP1) is a water channel found in many tissues and potentially involved in several human pathologies. Selective inhibitors of hAQP1 are discussed as novel treatment opportunities for glaucoma, brain edema, inflammatory pain, and certain types of cancer. However, only very few potent and chemically attractive blockers have been reported to date. In this study we present three novel hAQP1 blockers that have been identified by virtual screening and inhibit water flux through hAQP1 in Xenopus laevis oocyte swelling assays at low micromolar concentrations. The newly discovered compounds display no chemical similarity to hitherto known hAQP1 blockers and bind at the extracellular entrance of the channel, close to the ar/R selectivity filter. Furthermore, mutagenesis studies showed that Lys36, which is not conserved among the hAQP family, is crucially involved in binding and renders the discovered compounds suitable as leads for the development of selective hAQP1 inhibitors.

Chemoenzymatic synthesis of O-mannosylpeptides in solution and on solid phase.

O-mannosyl glycans are known to play an important role in regulating the function of α-dystroglycan (α-DG), as defective glycosylation is associated with various phenotypes of congenital muscular dystrophy. Despite the well-established biological significance of these glycans, questions regarding their precise molecular function remain unanswered. Further biological investigation will require synthetic methods for the generation of pure samples of homogeneous glycopeptides with diverse sequences. Here we describe the first total syntheses of glycopeptides containing the tetrasaccharide NeuNAcα2-3Galß1-4GlcNAcß1-2Manα, which is reported to be the most abundant O-mannosyl glycan on α-DG. Our approach is based on biomimetic stepwise assembly from the reducing end and also gives access to the naturally occurring mono-, di-, and trisaccharide substructures. In addition to the total synthesis, we have developed a "one-pot" enzymatic cascade leading to the rapid synthesis of the target tetrasaccharide. Finally, solid-phase synthesis of the desired glycopeptides directly on a gold microarray platform is described.

MALDI-ToF MS analysis of glycosyltransferase activities on gold surface arrays.

Glycan-processing enzymes such as glycosyltransferases and glycosidases are responsible for the makeup of the glycome. The definition of their substrate specificities is, therefore, a central task in glycomics. In addition, these enzymes are themselves useful synthetic tools for the generation of complex carbohydrate structures as an alternative to tedious chemical synthesis. There has been great interest in using microarrays for studying these glycoenzymes because it allows the specificity of the enzyme to be probed against a panel of immobilized potential substrates, and also expands the repertoire of sugar arrays available for further carbohydrate-protein interaction studies. In particular, self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of alkanethiols on gold surfaces have proven to be a valuable platform for such studies due to their robustness and their biocompatible, well-defined structure. Furthermore, a direct observation of the change in mass of immobilized substrates due to enzymatic processing is possible through label-free MALDI-ToF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry) technique. In this chapter, we describe the preparation of SAMs-coated gold surface arrays presenting carbohydrate or (glyco)peptide substrates, either pre-formed or directly synthesized on-chip, and MALDI-ToF MS analysis of glycosyltransferase activities on these immobilized substrates.

Unprecedented tunable tetraazamacrocycles.

Novel nitrogen-bridged aza[1(4)]cyclophanes with fine-tuned cavities have been synthesized by nucleophilic aromatic substitution of 1,5-difluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene with diaminobenzene derivatives.

Identification of potential cellular targets of aloisine A by affinity chromatography.

Affinity chromatography was used to identify potential cellular targets of aloisine A (7-n-butyl-6-(4'-hydroxyphenyl)-5H-pyrrolo[2,3b]pyrazine), a potent inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases. This technique is based on the immobilization of the drug on a solid matrix, followed by identification of specifically bound proteins. To this end, both aloisine A and the protein-kinase inactive control N-methyl aloisine, bearing extended linker chains have been synthesized. We present the preparation of such analogues having the triethylene glycol chain at different positions of the molecule, as well as their immobilization on an agarose-based matrix. Affinity chromatography of various biological extracts on the aloisine matrices allowed the identification of both protein kinases and non-kinase proteins as potential cellular targets of aloisine.

Enzymatic synthesis of peptides on a solid support.

We have previously shown that dipeptides can be synthesised in high yields from amino acids using protease catalysis in aqueous media, if the amino component is immobilised on porous PEGA resin (a copolymer of polyethylene glycol and polyacrylamide). Here we explore the scope of this methodology for using protected and glycosylated amino acids as well as the synthesis of longer peptides on resin and show that such a method can also be applied on non-porous surfaces, in particular on gold.

Design, synthesis and assaying of potential aquaporin inhibitors.

The aquaporin protein family performs fundamental tasks in the physiology of several organs in the human body. Their roles in several disorders known to involve water movement make them attractive targets for the development of novel drug therapies.This chapter describes assays commonly used to study the water permeability across AQPs. It also describes the effect of some known inhibitors of aquaporins on water permeability, such as mercury, gold, silver, copper, phloretin, tetraethyl ammonium salts and acetazolamide compounds.

Enzyme catalysis on solid surfaces.

Enzyme-catalysed reactions in which substrates are bound (immobilised) to solid surfaces are becoming increasingly important in biotechnology. There is a general drive for miniaturisation and automation in chemistry and biology, and immobilisation of the reaction intermediates and substrates, for example on microarrays or nanoparticles, helps to address technical challenges in this area. In bionanotechnology, enzyme catalysis can provide highly selective and biocompatible tools for the modification of surfaces on the nano-scale. Here, we review the range of enzyme-catalysed reactions that have been successfully performed on the solid phase and discuss their application in biotechnology.