The discovery of thiamethoxam: a second-generation neonicotinoid.

Neonicotinoids represent a novel and distinct chemical class of insecticides with remarkable chemical and biological properties. In 1985, a research programme was started in this field, in which novel nitroimino heterocycles were designed, prepared and assayed for insecticidal activity. The methodology for the synthesis of 2-nitroimino-hexahydro-1,3,5-triazines, 4-nitroimino-1,3,5-oxadiazinanes and 4-nitroimino-1,3,5-thiadiazinanes is outlined. Bioassays demonstrated that 3-(6-chloropyridin-3-ylmethyl)-4-nitroimino-1,3,5-oxadiazinane exhibited better insecticidal activity than the corresponding 2-nitroimino-hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine and 4-nitroimino-1,3,5-thiadiazinane. In most tests, this compound was equally or only slightly less active than imidacloprid. A series of structural modifications on this lead structure revealed that replacement of the 6-chloro-3-pyridyl group by a 2-chloro-5-thiazolyl moiety resulted in a strong increase of activity against chewing insects, whereas the introduction of a methyl group as pharmacophore substituent increased activity against sucking pests. The combination of these two favourable modifications led to thiamethoxam (CGA 293 343). Thiamethoxam is the first commercially available second-generation neonicotinoid and belongs to the thianicotinyl sub-class. It is marketed under the trademarks Actara for foliar and soil treatment and Cruiser for seed treatment. The compound has broad-spectrum insecticidal activity and offers excellent control of a wide variety of commercially important pests in many crops. Low use rates, flexible application methods, excellent efficacy and the favourable safety profile make this new insecticide well-suited for modern integrated pest management programmes in many cropping systems.

5-Azidoimidacloprid and an acyclic analogue as candidate photoaffinity probes for mammalian and insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

The 5-azido analogue of the major insecticide imidacloprid, 1-(5-azido-6-chloropyridin-3-ylmethyl)-2-nitroiminoimidaz olidine (1), and an acyclic analogue, N-(5-azido-6-chloropyridin-3-ylmethyl)-N'-methyl-N' '-nitroguanidine (2), were prepared in good yields as candidate photoaffinity probes for mammalian and insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The essential intermediate was 5-azido-6-chloropyridin-3-ylmethyl chloride (3) prepared in two ways: from 6-chloro-5-nitronicotinic acid by selective reduction and then diazotization, and from N-(6-chloropyridin-3-ylmethyl)morpholine by an electrophilic azide introduction with lithium diisopropylamide followed by chlorine substitution of morpholine with ethyl chloroformate. Coupling of 3 with 2-nitroiminoimidazolidine gave 1. Conversion of 3 to 2 was achieved in good yields via the hexahydrotriazine intermediate 14. Fortuitously, the azido substituent in 1 and 2 increases the affinity 7-79-fold for rat brain and recombinant alpha4beta2 nAChRs (K(i)s 4.4-60 nM competing with [(3)H](-)-nicotine) while maintaining high potency on both insect nAChRs (Drosophila and Myzus) (K(i)s 1-15 nM competing with [(3)H]imidacloprid). Azidopyridinyl compounds 1 and 2 are therefore candidate photoaffinity probes for characterization of both mammalian and insect receptors.