Understanding Water Governance in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia: Governance Framework, Coherence and Practices.

Water governance demands multi-sector participation beyond the state; and, appropriate laws, policies, regulations, and institutions need to be developed and put in place for sustainable use of water resources. A good water policy, a critical and integral instrument of water governance, guides water use schemes and ensures equitable water distribution among users. The Ethiopian Central Rift Valley (CRV) is rich in water resources, but these water resources are currently under severe strain owing to an imbalance in human-water interactions. This study examined the state of water resources governance framework, policy coherence, actors' engagement and transparency, accountability, and participation in irrigation water supply in the CRV of Ethiopia. Key informant interviews (KII), focused group discussions, and document reviews were used to gather data for the study. The NVivo 11 program was used to organize, code, and analyze the data. The results revealed that water resources governance practices such as water allocation and apportionment, water resources protection, and conservation activities were inappropriately exercised. Water resources management policy mechanisms were not fully put in place. Lack of coherence in water policy implementation, absence of clear roles and responsibilities of stakeholders, absence of transparency and accountability in irrigation water service delivery, and lack of meaningful participation of key actors in water governance decision-making were observed. As a result, over-abstraction, deterioration of buffer zone areas, and chemical erosion from surrounding farming are attributed to the reduction in water volume and quality in the CRV. These challenges have influenced aquatic ecosystem services and threaten the livelihoods of the surrounding communities. Hence, reforms relating to policy coherence and enforcement, stakeholder engagement, water distribution strategies, and the implementation of water governance principles must be given adequate emphasis.

The role and interplay of institutions in water governance in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia.

Background: Institutions can play a key role in coordinating how natural resources are effectively managed and used without over-exploitation. Institutions are laws, policies, and organizational arrangements that permit, forbid or regulate human action. This study aimed to look into the roles of formal and informal institutions, and their interactions in water resources governance in the Central Rift Valley (CRV), Ethiopia. Methods: Key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and secondary data sources were employed to collect relevant data. Results: The result of the study indicated that the influence of informal institutions on formal institutions or vice versa was insignificant, and unable to change the actions of water users in the CRV. Other limitations observed in water resources governance in the CRV include a lack of actors' clear roles and responsibilities, absence of meaningful decentralization, limited engagement of key actors in policy development, lack of synergy between the institutions, and absence of enforcement mechanisms. Conclusion: Considering the local contexts and community's traditional knowledge of water governance in water-related policy, rules, and regulations, and enhancing the capacity of local-level institutions, strong interplay among all institutions involved in water governance, and meaningful actors' engagement were recommended to advance the role of institutions in water resources governance in the CRV and in the country. Hence, a mechanism that enables to harmonize formal and informal institutions in water management system can enhance the governance of water resources in the study area and elsewhere in the country.

Determinants of adoption of climate smart agricultural practices among farmers in Bale-Eco region, Ethiopia.

Adoption of climate smart agricultural (CSA) practices has been widely recognized as a promising and successful alternative to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change. However, their adoption among smallholder farmers remains low in developing countries, including Ethiopia. This study examines factors that influence adoption and the level of adoption of multiple CSA practices, including improved agronomy, soil and water conservation, drought tolerant high yielding crop variety, small-scale irrigation, integrated disease, pest, and weed management, and integrated soil fertility management, using survey data from 404 farm households in Bale-Eco Region (BER), Ethiopia. The study applied a multivariate probit model for analyzing the simultaneous adoptions of multiple CSA practices, and ordered probit model for examining the factors influencing the level of adoption. The CSA practices are found to be complementary. Moreover, farmers' adoption of multiple CSA practices, as well as their intensity of adoption, is significantly influenced by the age of the household head, education, land size, household total asset value, frequency of extension contacts, farmer awareness of climate change, farmer experience with climatic shocks, parcel fertility, slope, and severity of soil erosion. The study's findings suggest that agricultural policy makers and implementers of CSA should recognize the complementarity among CSA practices in order to intensify their adoption among BER farmers and disseminate CSA practices in other parts of the country. Moreover, policymakers should consider household socio-economic, institutional, and parcel-specific factors that positively influence CSA adoption.

Farmers' willingness to pay for alternative resource management practices in the Bale Eco-Region, Ethiopia: An application of choice experiment.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the preferences of people in the Bale Eco-Region (BER) for better ecosystem services and to calculate their mean Willingness to Pay (WTP) for selected attributes of conservation practices to maintain watershed's ecosystem functions, using a choice modeling approach. Results from reforestation attributes revealed that the average WTP for reforestation characteristics were 3,053 ($145.38), 2,516 ($119.83), and 1,827 ($87) Ethiopian Birr (ETB)/year for higher, medium, and low impact improvement scenarios respectively, to midland communities. Lowland respondents' mean WTP for exclosure attributes were estimated at 882 ($42), 1,558 ($74.19), and 2,383 ($113) ETB yearly for low, medium, and high impact improvement scenarios respectively. This indicates that respondents from both lowland and midland communities are willing to spend a substantial amount of resource and time (measured in terms of money) on to improve ES in the BER. The study provides valuable input to carry out a cost-benefit analysis of possible interventions conserving natural resources in the BER. Moreover, using this study was an important step for initiating the process of Payment for Ecosystem Services in the BER where local communities, in Ethiopia and beyond could contribute to rehabilitating Ecosystem Services.

High prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations in unselected Nigerian breast cancer patients.

Inherited mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are the strongest genetic predictors of breast cancer and are the primary causes of familial breast/ovarian cancer syndrome. The frequency, spectrum and penetrance of mutant BRCA1/BRCA2 alleles have been determined for several populations, but little information is available for populations of African ancestry, who suffer a disproportionate burden of early onset breast cancer. We have performed complete sequence analysis of all BRCA1 and BRCA2 exons and intron-exon boundaries for 434 Nigerian breast cancer patients from the University College Hospital in Ibadan, Nigeria. In contrast to previous suggestions that BRCA1/BRCA2 mutation frequencies are low or undetectable in African American populations, we find that Nigerian breast cancer patients have an exceptionally high frequency of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations (7.1 and 3.9%, respectively). Sixteen different BRCA1 mutations were detected, seven of which have never been reported previously, while thirteen different BRCA2 mutations were seen, six of which were previously unreported. Thus, our data support enrichment for genetic risk factors in this relatively young cohort. To improve breast cancer outcomes, we suggest that family-based models of risk assessment and genetic counseling coupled with interventions to reduce breast cancer risk should be broadly disseminated in Nigeria and other underserved and understudied populations.

Household waste disposal in Mekelle city, Northern Ethiopia.

In many cities of developing countries, such as Mekelle (Ethiopia), waste management is poor and solid wastes are dumped along roadsides and into open areas, endangering health and attracting vermin. The effects of demographic factors, economic and social status, waste and environmental attributes on household solid waste disposal are investigated using data from household survey. Household level data are then analyzed using multinomial logit estimation to determine the factors that affect household waste disposal decision making. Results show that demographic features such as age, education and household size have an insignificant impact over the choice of alternative waste disposal means, whereas the supply of waste facilities significantly affects waste disposal choice. Inadequate supply of waste containers and longer distance to these containers increase the probability of waste dumping in open areas and roadsides relative to the use of communal containers. Higher household income decreases the probability of using open areas and roadsides as waste destinations relative to communal containers. Measures to make the process of waste disposal less costly and ensuring well functioning institutional waste management would improve proper waste disposal.

BRCA1 promoter methylation in sporadic breast cancer is associated with reduced BRCA1 copy number and chromosome 17 aneusomy.

To explore the molecular mechanisms for the similarities between inherited and noninherited forms of breast cancer, we tested the hypothesis that inactivation of BRCA1 by promoter hypermethylation is associated with reduced gene copy number and chromosome 17 aneusomy as observed in tumors from BRCA1 mutation carriers. Using a combination of methylation-specific PCR analysis and fluorescence in situ hybridization, we observed varying degrees of promoter methylation in 39 of 131 (29.8%) primary tumors. Despite significant tumor heterogeneity, mean copy numbers of BRCA1 and CEP17 per cell were lower in methylated cases compared with unmethylated cases [1.78 versus 2.30 (P = 0.001) and 1.85 versus 2.29 (P = 0.005), respectively]. Methylation was more frequently observed in younger women (P = 0.05) with high-grade (P = 0.001), estrogen receptor-negative (P = 0.04), and progesterone receptor-negative (P = 0.01) tumors. Moreover, methylation was associated with reduced or absent BRCA1 transcripts, which was reversible in the heavily BRCA1-methylated cell line UACC3199 following treatment with 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine and trichostatin A. We identified five CpGs at positions -533, -355, -173, -21, and +44 as critical in the reexpression of BRCA1. We conclude that BRCA1 methylation contributes to a subset of sporadic breast cancers with the resulting molecular and clinicopathologic phenotype similar to that of hereditary BRCA1-associated breast cancers. Our data support a model of carcinogenesis in which BRCA1 promoter methylation may serve as a "first hit," much like an inherited germ line mutation, and promote tumor progression down a restricted set of molecular pathways.

Chromosome band 16q22-linked familial AML: exclusion of candidate genes, and possible disease risk modification by NQO1 polymorphisms.

Analyses of chromosomal translocation and inversion breakpoints in sporadic acute myeloid leukemias have identified many transcription factors as playing a role in leukemogenesis. Studies of families with a Mendelian predisposition to hematological malignancies have identified the gene coding for the transcription factor RUNX1 as a leukemia-predisposing gene involved in the first steps of leukemogenesis. Using two families, another autosomal dominant familial leukemia locus was linked to chromosome band 16q22 where the CBFB gene maps. Although CBFB forms a core-binding factor transcriptional complex with RUNX1, previous analyses have excluded the CBFB gene as the leukemia-predisposing gene in these families. In the current study, we performed an extended molecular analysis in these families of the four other transcription factor genes in the 16q22 critical region as well as of two other genes with a known association with leukemia. Several previously undescribed but nonpathogenic sequence variants were identified. We demonstrated that the transcription factors E2F4, CTCF, NFATC3, and NFAT5, and the genes coding for NAD(P)H:quinone oxido-reductase 1 (NQO1) and for E-cadherin are not responsible for the leukemia susceptibility in these families. The presence of NQO1 polymorphisms may suggest a role for this gene in disease risk modification in these families.

MYC is amplified in BRCA1-associated breast cancers.

PURPOSE: Germ-line mutations in the BRCA1 tumor suppressor gene predispose to early onset breast cancers with a distinct phenotype characterized by high tumor grade, aneuploidy, high proliferation rate, and estrogen receptor-negativity. The molecular mechanisms and cooperative oncogenes contributing to multistep tumor progression in cells lacking BRCA1 are not well defined. To examine whether C-MYC (MYC), a transforming oncogene associated with genetic instability, contributes to multistep tumor progression in BRCA1-associated breast cancer, we have analyzed tumors from women with hereditary BRCA1-mutated and sporadic breast cancers. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We performed fluorescence in situ hybridization using a MYC:CEP8 assay on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor tissues from 40 women with known deleterious germ-line BRCA1 mutations and 62 sporadic cases, including 20 cases with hypermethylation of the BRCA1 gene promoter. RESULTS: We observed a MYC:CEP8 amplification ratio >/=2 in 21 of 40 (53%) BRCA1-mutated tumors compared with 14 of 62 (23%) sporadic tumors (P = 0.003). Of the 14 sporadic cases with MYC amplification, 8 (57%) were BRCA1-methylated. In total, MYC amplification was found in a significantly higher proportion of tumors with BRCA1 dysfunction (29 of 60, 48% versus 6 of 42, 14%; P = 0.0003). In a multivariable regression model controlling for age, tumor size, and estrogen receptor status, BRCA1-mutated tumors demonstrated significantly greater mean MYC:CEP8 ratio than sporadic tumors (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that MYC oncogene amplification contributes to tumor progression in BRCA1-associated breast cancers. Thus, we conclude that the aggressive histopathological features of BRCA1-associated tumors are in part due to dysregulated MYC activity.

Molecular-cytogenetic analysis of HER-2/neu gene in BRCA1-associated breast cancers.

The BRCA1 tumor suppressor gene and the HER-2/neu oncogene are located in close proximity on the long arm of chromosome 17 (17q11-21). Absence of BRCA1 or functional overexpression of the HER-2/neu gene presumably contributes to the somatic phenotype of breast cancer in premenopausal women, characterized by unfavorable prognostic features such as high tumor grade, hormone receptor negativity, and high proliferation rate. To examine whether amplification of HER-2/neu contributes to the aggressive biology of BRCA1-associated tumors, we have performed fluorescence in situ hybridization on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded breast tumor tissue sections from 53 BRCA1 mutation carriers and 41 randomly selected, age-matched sporadic breast cancer cases. Although BRCA1-associated and sporadic tumors were equally likely (19% versus 22%) to exhibit HER-2/neu amplification [defined as a ratio of HER-2/neu copies to chromosome 17 centromere (CEP17) copies > or = 2], 6 (15%) of the sporadic tumors were highly amplified (defined as a ratio greater-than-or-equal 5) versus none of the BRCA1-associated tumors (P = 0.048). HER-2 protein overexpression as measured by immunohistochemical analysis was not observed among the BRCA1-associated cases (P = 0.042). Four of 21 (19%) sporadic tumors exhibited strong membranous staining of HER-2 (intensity level of 3+) as compared with 0 of 39 BRCA1-associated tumors. Our data suggest that a germ-line mutation in the BRCA1 tumor suppressor gene is associated with a significantly lower level of HER-2/neu amplification. Thus, it is possible that BRCA1-associated and HER-2/neu-highly amplified tumors progress through distinct molecular pathways, and the aggressive pathological features of BRCA1-associated tumors appear unrelated to amplification of the adjacent HER-2/neu oncogene.