Evaluation of Virulence Determinants Using Whole-Genome Sequencing and Phenotypic Biofilm Analysis of Outbreak-Linked Staphylococcus aureus Isolates.

Biofilms are a frequent cause of food contamination of potentially pathogenic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus. Given its vast role in human disease, the possible impact of biofilm-producing S. aureus isolates in a food processing environment is evident. Sixty-nine S. aureus isolates collected from one firm following multiple staphylococcal food poisoning outbreak investigations were utilized for this analysis. Strain evaluations were performed to establish virulence determinants and the evolutionary relationships using data generated by shotgun whole-genome sequencing (WGS), along with end point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and in vitro phenotypic assessments. S. aureus isolates were grouped into six well-supported clades in the phylogenetic tree, with the relationships within the clades indicating a strong degree of clonal structure. Our analysis identified four major sequence types 47.8% ST1, 31.9% ST45, 7.2% ST5, and 7.2% ST30 and two major spa types 47.8% t127 and 29.0% t3783. Extrapolated staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) analysis found that all isolates were positive for at least 1 of the 23 SEs and/or SE-like toxin genes. Enterotoxigenic assessments found that 93% of the isolates expressed a classical SE(A-E). SE gene concurrence was observed at 96.2%, based on PCR and WGS results. In total, 46 gene targets were distinguished. This included genes that encode for adhesion and biofilm synthesis such as clfA, clfB, bbp, ebpS, ica, bap and agr. Our evaluation found agr group III to be the most prevalent at 55%, followed by 35% for agr group I. All isolates harbored the complete intercellular adhesion operon that is recognized to contain genes responsible for the adhesion step of biofilm formation by encoding proteins involved in the syntheses of the biofilm matrix. Phenotypic characterization of biofilm formation was evaluated three times, with each test completed in triplicate and accomplished utilizing the microtiter plate method and Congo red agar (CRA). The microtiter plate results indicated moderate to high biofilm formation for 96% of the isolates, with 4% exhibiting weak to no biofilm development. CRA results yielded all positive to intermediate results. The potential to inadvertently transfer pathogenic bacteria from the environment into food products creates challenges to any firm and may result in adulterated food.

Draft Genome Sequences of 62 Staphylococcus aureus Isolates Associated with Four Foodborne Outbreaks in the United States.

Staphylococcus aureus bacteria are ranked among the top five foodborne pathogens in the United States. Here, we report the draft genome sequences of 62 S. aureus isolates that originated from the manufacturing environment of an Illinois bakery and were associated with outbreaks between 2010 and 2011 in the United States.

Analysis of the VIDAS® Staph Enterotoxin III (SET3) for Detection of Staphylococcal Enterotoxins G, H, and I in Foods.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) frequently causes illnesses worldwide. SFP occurs from the ingestion of staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) preformed in foods by enterotoxigenic strains of Staphylococcus species, primarily S. aureus. SEG, SEH, and SEI induce emesis and have been implicated in outbreaks. Immunological-based methods are deemed the most practical methods for the routine analysis of SEs in foods given their ease of use, sensitivity, specificity, and commercial availability. These kits are routinely used to test for SEA-SEE. However, only recently has a kit been developed to detect SEG, SEH, and SEI. OBJECTIVE: Our research examined the performance of the novel VIDAS® Staph Enterotoxin III (SET3) for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxins SEG, SEH, and SEI in foods. METHODS: Here we assess the sensitivity and specificity of SET3 using duplicate test portions of six foods at varying concentrations of inclusivity and exclusivity inocula: pure SEG, SEH, SEI, S. aureus strain extracts positive for seg, seh, and sei, as well as SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, and SEE. RESULTS: The overall detection limit was less than 2.09 ng/mL for foods inoculated with SEG, SEH, and SEI, with no cross reactivity observed. HIGHLIGHTS: Integrating concurrent testing to detect the presence of SEA-SEE and SEG-SEI utilizing the SET3 along with the VIDAS SET2, Ridascreen® SET total, or other comparable kits will be instrumental for the future food assessments in our laboratory and may become the new standard for SE analysis of foods.

Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type R Pseudogene Presence in Staphylococcus aureus Reference and Outbreak Strains.

Novel staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) expressed by Staphylococcus aureus strains have been described throughout the years, among these being the SE protein SER. To further characterize this toxin, this research used 13 S. aureus strains previously determined to contain the SE type R (ser) gene. These S. aureus isolates were evaluated using serological assays for identification of SEA-SEE and PCR for the detection of newly described SE and SE-like enterotoxin genes seg-seu. PCR-based cloning was performed such that the ser gene could be ligated into the pTrc99A plasmid expression vector. Ligation products were used to transform Escherichia coli (DH10Br) strains so that the ser open reading frame (ORF) could be sequenced and expressed for further characterization. Four of the 13 S. aureus strains tested harbored a ser ORF that yielded a PCR-positive result, but contained a frameshift mutation that subsequently introduced a premature stop codon abrogating expression of a full-sized functional protein. In this study, 30% of the PCR-positive ser strains tested were found to carry genes that coded for a nonfunctional SER protein, a finding that clearly illustrates the limited effectiveness of PCR for reliably evaluating enterotoxin potential for ser and, perhaps, other enterotoxin types.

Screening, detection, and serotyping methods for toxin genes and enterotoxins in Staphylococcus strains.

Staphylococcus aureus continues to play a significant role in foodborne outbreak investigations, with numerous individuals sickened each year after ingesting assorted foods contaminated with staphylococcal enterotoxins. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of several methods for the screening, detection, and enterotoxin serotyping of staphylococcal bacterial strains for classical staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs; SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, and SEE) and the newly described SE and SE-like enterotoxin genes (seg, seh, sei, sej, sek, sel, sem, sen, seo, sep, seq, ser, ses, set, and seu). Inclusivity and exclusivity panels of staphylococcal strains were tested using a multiplex PCR method in addition to three polyvalent commercially prepared ELISA systems for the detection of SEA-SEE and one monovalent assay for the identification of classical SE serotypes. The results indicate an overall agreement between serological detection methods with a few exceptions, and molecular characterization identified an abundance of SE and SE-like enterotoxin genes including several potentially enterotoxigenic isolates that would have otherwise been missed by ELISA-based methods. These findings demonstrate the significance of PCR for future screening purposes and the use of ELISA systems for the detection and enterotoxin serotyping of staphylococcal bacterial strains.

Staphylococcal enterotoxin B-specific electrochemiluminescence and lateral flow device assays cross-react with staphylococcal enterotoxin D.

Guam school children and faculty members experienced symptoms of vomiting, nausea, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea shortly after eating breakfast prepared by contracted caterers. The first illness was reported within an hour after breakfast, affecting 295 students and two faculty members. Local hospitals treated 130 people, and 61 were admitted for further treatment. Reported symptoms were consistent with staphylococcal food poisoning. Initial food testing using a lateral flow device and electrochemiluminescence method incorrectly implicated staphylococcal enterotoxin B as the causative agent, prompting partial activation of Guam's Emergency Response Center. Traditional ELISAs proved that the food poisoning agent was staphylococcal enterotoxin D. More specific and sensitive assays would have alleviated the issues and confusion that surrounded the reporting and investigation of this outbreak.