Arginyltransferase 1 modulates p62-driven autophagy via mTORC1/AMPk signaling.

BACKGROUND: Arginyltransferase (Ate1) orchestrates posttranslational protein arginylation, a pivotal regulator of cellular proteolytic processes. In eukaryotic cells, two interconnected systems-the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) and macroautophagy-mediate proteolysis and cooperate to maintain quality protein control and cellular homeostasis. Previous studies have shown that N-terminal arginylation facilitates protein degradation through the UPS. Dysregulation of this machinery triggers p62-mediated autophagy to ensure proper substrate processing. Nevertheless, how Ate1 operates through this intricate mechanism remains elusive. METHODS: We investigated Ate1 subcellular distribution through confocal microscopy and biochemical assays using cells transiently or stably expressing either endogenous Ate1 or a GFP-tagged Ate1 isoform transfected in CHO-K1 or MEFs, respectively. To assess Ate1 and p62-cargo clustering, we analyzed their colocalization and multimerization status by immunofluorescence and nonreducing immunoblotting, respectively. Additionally, we employed Ate1 KO cells to examine the role of Ate1 in autophagy. Ate1 KO MEFs cells stably expressing GFP-tagged Ate1-1 isoform were used as a model for phenotype rescue. Autophagy dynamics were evaluated by analyzing LC3B turnover and p62/SQSTM1 levels under both steady-state and serum-starvation conditions, through immunoblotting and immunofluorescence. We determined mTORC1/AMPk activation by assessing mTOR and AMPk phosphorylation through immunoblotting, while mTORC1 lysosomal localization was monitored by confocal microscopy. RESULTS: Here, we report a multifaceted role for Ate1 in the autophagic process, wherein it clusters with p62, facilitates autophagic clearance, and modulates its signaling. Mechanistically, we found that cell-specific inactivation of Ate1 elicits overactivation of the mTORC1/AMPk signaling hub that underlies a failure in autophagic flux and subsequent substrate accumulation, which is partially rescued by ectopic expression of Ate1. Statistical significance was assessed using a two-sided unpaired t test with a significance threshold set at P<0.05. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings uncover a critical housekeeping role of Ate1 in mTORC1/AMPk-regulated autophagy, as a potential therapeutic target related to this pathway, that is dysregulated in many neurodegenerative and cancer diseases.

Assaying the Posttranslational Arginylation of Proteins in Cultured Cells.

To evaluate the posttranslational arginylation of proteins in vivo, we describe a protocol for studying the 14C-Arg incorporation into proteins of cells in culture. The conditions determined for this particular modification contemplate both the biochemical requirements of the enzyme ATE1 and the adjustments that allowed the discrimination between posttranslational arginylation of proteins and de novo synthesis. These conditions are applicable for different cell lines or primary cultures, representing an optimal procedure for the identification and the validation of putative ATE1 substrates.

Arginylated Calreticulin Increases Apoptotic Response Induced by Bortezomib in Glioma Cells.

After retrotranslocation from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytoplasm, calreticulin is modified by the enzyme arginyltransferase-1 (ATE1). Cellular levels of arginylated calreticulin (R-CRT) are regulated in part by the proteasomal system. Under various stress conditions, R-CRT becomes associated with stress granules (SGs) or reaches the plasma membrane (PM), where it participates in pro-apoptotic signaling. The mechanisms underlying the resistance of tumor cells to apoptosis induced by specific drugs remain unclear. We evaluated the regulatory role of R-CRT in apoptosis of human glioma cell lines treated with the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (BT). Two cell lines (HOG, MO59K) displaying distinctive susceptibility to apoptosis induction were studied further. BT efficiency was found to be correlated with a subcellular distribution of R-CRT. In MO59K (apoptosis-resistant), R-CRT was confined to SGs formed following BT treatment. In contrast, HOG (apoptosis-susceptible) treated with BT showed lower SG formation and higher levels of cytosolic and PM R-CRT. Increased R-CRT level was associated with enhanced mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ and with sustained apoptosis activation via upregulation of cell death receptor DR5. R-CRT overexpression in the cytoplasm of MO59K rendered the cells susceptible to BT-induced, DR5-mediated cell death. Our findings suggest that R-CRT plays an essential role in the effect of BT treatment on tumor cells and that ATE1 is a strong candidate target for future studies of cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Thermal unfolding of calreticulin. Structural and thermodynamic characterization of the transition.

Calreticulin (CRT) is a calcium-binding protein that participates in several cellular processes including the control of protein folding and homeostasis of Ca2+. Its folding, stability and functions are strongly controlled by the presence of Ca2+. The oligomerization state of CRT is also relevant for its functions. We studied the thermal transitions of monomers and oligomers of CRT by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), circular dichroism (CD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in the presence and absence of Ca2+. We found three and two components for the calorimetric transition in the presence and absence of Ca2+ respectively. The presence of several components was also supported by CD and FTIR spectra acquired as a function of the temperature. The difference between the heat capacity of the native and the unfolded state strongly suggests that interactions between protein domains also contribute to the heat uptake in a calorimetry experiment. We found that once unfolded at high temperature the process is reversible and the native state can be recovered upon cooling only in the absence of Ca2+. We also propose a new simple method to obtain pure CRT oligomers.

Post-translational protein arginylation in the normal nervous system and in neurodegeneration.

Post-translational arginylation of proteins is an important regulator of many physiological pathways in cells. This modification was originally noted in protein degradation during neurodegenerative processes, with an apparently different physiological relevance between central and peripheral nervous system. Subsequent studies have identified a steadily increasing number of proteins and proteolysis-derived polypeptides as arginyltransferase (ATE1) substrates, including ß-amyloid, α-synuclein, and TDP43 proteolytic fragments. Arginylation is involved in signaling processes of proteins and polypeptides that are further ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome. In addition, it is also implicated in autophagy/lysosomal degradation pathway. Recent studies using mutant mouse strains deficient in ATE1 indicate additional roles of this modification in neuronal physiology. As ATE1 is capable of modifying proteins either at the N-terminus or middle-chain acidic residues, determining which proteins function are modulated by arginylation represents a big challenge. Here, we review studies addressing various roles of ATE1 activity in nervous system function, and suggest future research directions that will clarify the role of post-translational protein arginylation in brain development and various neurological disorders. Arginyltransferase (ATE1), the enzyme responsible for post-translational arginylation, modulates the functions of a wide variety of proteins and polypeptides, and is also involved in the main degradation pathways of intracellular proteins. Regulatory roles of ATE1 have been well defined for certain organs. However, its roles in nervous system development and neurodegenerative processes remain largely unknown, and present exciting opportunities for future research, as discussed in this review.

Assaying the Posttranslational Arginylation of Proteins in Cultured Cells.

To evaluate the posttranslational arginylation of proteins in vivo, we describe a protocol for studying the (14)C-Arg incorporation into proteins of cells in culture. The conditions determined for this particular modification contemplate both the biochemical requirements of the enzyme ATE1 and the adjustments that allowed the discrimination between posttranslational arginylation of proteins and de novo synthesis. These conditions are applicable for different cell lines or primary cultures, representing an optimal procedure for the identification and the validation of putative ATE1 substrates.

Calreticulin and Arginylated Calreticulin Have Different Susceptibilities to Proteasomal Degradation.

Post-translational arginylation has been suggested to target proteins for proteasomal degradation. The degradation mechanism for arginylated calreticulin (R-CRT) localized in the cytoplasm is unknown. To evaluate the effect of arginylation on CRT stability, we examined the metabolic fates and degradation mechanisms of cytoplasmic CRT and R-CRT in NIH 3T3 and CHO cells. Both CRT isoforms were found to be proteasomal substrates, but the half-life of R-CRT (2 h) was longer than that of cytoplasmic CRT (0.7 h). Arginylation was not required for proteasomal degradation of CRT, although R-CRT displays ubiquitin modification. A CRT mutant incapable of dimerization showed reduced metabolic stability of R-CRT, indicating that R-CRT dimerization may protect it from proteasomal degradation. Our findings, taken together, demonstrate a novel function of arginylation: increasing the half-life of CRT in cytoplasm.

Calreticulin-dimerization induced by post-translational arginylation is critical for stress granules scaffolding.

Protein arginylation mediated by arginyl-tRNA protein transferase is a post-translational modification that occurs widely in biology, it has been shown to regulate protein and properties and functions. Post-translational arginylation is critical for embryogenesis, cardiovascular development and angiogenesis but the molecular effects of proteins arginylated in vivo are largely unknown. In the present study, we demonstrate that arginylation reduces CRT (calreticulin) thermostability and induces a greater degree of dimerization and oligomerization. R-CRT (arginylated calreticulin) forms disulfide-bridged dimers that are increased in low Ca(2+) conditions at physiological temperatures, a similar condition to the cellular environment that it required for arginylation of CRT. Moreover, R-CRT self-oligomerizes through non-covalent interactions that are enhanced at temperatures above 40 °C, condition that mimics the heat shock treatment where R-CRT is the only isoespecies of CRT that associates in cells to SGs (stress granules). We show that in cells lacking CRT the scaffolding of larger SGs is impaired; the transfection with CRT (hence R-CRT expression) restores SGs assembly whereas the transfection with CRT mutated in Cys146 does not. Thus, R-CRT disulfide-bridged dimers (through Cys146) are essential for the scaffolding of larger SGs under heat shock, although these dimers are not required for R-CRT association to SGs. The alteration in SGs assembly is critical for the normal cellular recover of cells after heat induced stress. We conclude that R-CRT is emerging as a novel protein that has an impact on the regulation of SGs scaffolding and cell survival.

Arginylated calreticulin at plasma membrane increases susceptibility of cells to apoptosis.

Post-translational modifications of proteins are important for the regulation of cell fate and functions; one of these post-translational modifications is arginylation. We have previously established that calreticulin (CRT), an endoplasmic reticulum resident, is also one of the arginylated substrates found in the cytoplasm. In the present study, we describe that arginylated CRT (R-CRT) binds to the cell membrane and identified its role as a preapoptotic signal. We also show that cells lacking arginyl-tRNA protein transferase are less susceptible to apoptosis than wild type cells. Under these conditions R-CRT is present on the cell membrane but at early stages is differently localized in stress granules. Moreover, cells induced to undergo apoptosis by arsenite show increased R-CRT on their cell surface. Exogenously applied R-CRT binds to the cell membrane and is able to both increase the number of cells undergoing apoptosis in wild type cells and overcome apoptosis resistance in cells lacking arginyl-tRNA protein transferase that express R-CRT on the cell surface. Thus, these results demonstrate the importance of surface R-CRT in the apoptotic response of cells, implying that post-translational arginylation of CRT can regulate its intracellular localization, cell function, and survival.

The arginylation-dependent association of calreticulin with stress granules is regulated by calcium.

Post-translational modifications of proteins are important for the regulation of cell functions; one of these modifications is post-translational arginylation. In the present study, we show that cytoplasmic CRT (calreticulin) is arginylated by ATE1 (arginyl-tRNA protein transferase). We also show that a pool of CRT undergoes retrotranslocation from the ER (endoplasmic reticulum) to the cytosol, because in CRT-knockout cells transfected with full-length CRT (that has the signal peptide), cytoplasmic CRT appears as a consequence of its expression and processing in the ER. After the cleavage of the signal peptide, an N-terminal arginylatable residue is revealed prior to retrotranslocation to the cytoplasm where arginylation takes place. SGs (stress granules) from ATE1-knockout cells do not contain CRT, indicating that CRT arginylation is required for its association to SGs. Furthermore, R-CRT (arginylated CRT) in the cytoplasm associates with SGs in cells treated with several stressors that lead to a reduction of intracellular Ca2+ levels. However, in the presence of stressors that do not affect Ca2+ levels, R-CRT is not recruited to these loci despite the fact that SGs are formed, demonstrating Ca2+-dependent R-CRT association to SGs. We conclude that post-translational arginylation of retrotranslocated CRT, together with the decrease in intracellular Ca2+, promotes the association of CRT to SGs.

Post-translational arginylation of calreticulin: a new isospecies of calreticulin component of stress granules.

Post-translational arginylation consists of the covalent union of an arginine residue to a Glu, Asp, or Cys amino acid at the N-terminal position of proteins. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme arginyl-tRNA protein transferase. Using mass spectrometry, we have recently demonstrated in vitro the post-translational incorporation of arginine into the calcium-binding protein calreticulin (CRT). To further study arginylated CRT we raised an antibody against the peptide (RDPAIYFK) that contains an arginine followed by the first 7 N-terminal amino acids of mature rat CRT. This antibody specifically recognizes CRT obtained from rat soluble fraction that was arginylated in vitro and also recognizes endogenous arginylated CRT from NIH 3T3 cells in culture, indicating that CRT arginylation takes place in living cells. Using this antibody we found that arginylation of CRT is Ca2+-regulated. In vitro and in NIH 3T3 cells in culture, the level of arginylated CRT increased with the addition of a Ca2+ chelator to the medium, whereas a decreased arginine incorporation into CRT was found in the presence of Ca2+. The arginylated CRT was observed in the cytosol, in contrast to the non-arginylated CRT that is in the endoplasmic reticulum. Under stress conditions, arginylated CRT was found associated to stress granules. These results suggest that CRT arginylation occurs in the cytosolic pool of mature CRT (defined by an Asp acid N-terminal) that is probably retrotranslocated from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Re-examination of the post-translational arginylated protein of 125-kD initially identified as N-STOP.

Post-translational modification of proteins is a complex mechanism by which cells regulate protein activities. One post-translational modification is the incorporation of arginine into the NH2-terminus of proteins. It has been hypothesized that in rat brain extracts, one of the proteins modified by this reaction is the microtubule-associated protein Neuronal Stable Tubule Only Polypeptide (N-STOP). This was inferred from its electrophoretic mobility (125 kD) and because it was immunoprecipitated with a monoclonal antibody against the N-STOP. However, this hypothesis is not supported by our recent results. Herein, we found that rat N-STOP interacts with Ca(2+)-calmodulin, whereas the 125-kD [14C]-arginylated protein does not. The 125-kD [14C]-arginylated protein from rat brain is separated from the N-STOP by two-dimensional electrophoresis, and it is not recognized by a STOP monoclonal antibody. Mouse brain contains N-STOP, which migrates as a protein of 116 kD and could not be labeled by the post-translational incorporation of [14C]-arginine. The 125-kD [14C]-arginylated protein appears in wild-type as well as in STOP knock out mice. Based on these results, we conclude that the 125-kD arginylated protein is different from N-STOP.