Building on cultural and linguistic strengths and recognizing life challenges - a commentary on Paradis' "Sources of individual differences in the dual language development of heritage bilinguals".

Children growing up bilingually are often treated as a monolithic group; however, heritage language (HL) bilinguals constitute an extremely heterogenous group that vary due to a wide variety of factors. In her keynote, Paradis provides a thought-provoking analysis of the research literature and identifies key internal and external factors that lead to individual differences. Specifically, she identifies age of second language (L2) acquisition, cognitive abilities, and social-emotional wellbeing as important internal factors. She also discusses both proximal and distal external factors. Proximal factors include children's cumulative exposure to L2 and HL, L2 and HL usage at home, and the richness of the L2 and HL environment. Distal factors involve education in HL, parent language proficiency, socioeconomic status (SES), and family attitudes and identities. In my commentary, I expand on Paradis' keynote to include the role of culture, which I consider to be both an internal and external factor, and respond to her discussion of two external factors, the impact of SES and the role of the classroom environment.

A Randomized Controlled Trial Assessing the Effectiveness of the Háblame Bebé Mobile Application With Spanish-Speaking Mothers Experiencing Economic Hardship.

PURPOSE: This study examined the effectiveness of a standalone mobile application (app), Háblame Bebé, for use in real-world settings without supplemental human interaction to promote Spanish-speaking mothers' language interactions with their young children and associated child bilingual (Spanish-English) language development. METHOD: Thirty-seven Spanish-speaking Latina mothers with lower incomes and their children were randomly assigned to experimental and wait-list control groups for 12 weeks. The experimental group was introduced to the app to learn how to provide language-promoting strategies in the home language and encouraged to use the app to track child vocabulary growth and overall development. Mother and child outcomes were measured before and after intervention via standardized assessments, direct observations, and parent report. Engagement and social validity data were also gathered. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were identified between experimental and control groups. However, looking at the magnitude of the difference between groups, child outcomes consistently favored the experimental group (d = 0.2-0.4). Mothers reported high levels of acceptance of the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Culturally and linguistically responsive app-based interventions have the potential to serve as a unique delivery model for speech-language pathologists and other professionals to share critical information on bilingual language development with parents of young children who are learning in a bilingual context. Clinical and research implications are discussed, including the consideration that low-intensity interventions may need to be paired with ongoing parent coaching. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.18461585.

English Narrative Macrostructure Development of Spanish-English Bilingual Children From Preschool to First Grade.

Purpose This longitudinal study examined the development of seven macrostructure features in the English narratives of Spanish-English bilingual children from the beginning of preschool to the end of first grade and examined whether the timing of English exposure impacted this development. Method Narratives were collected over 4 years for 103 children of Puerto Rican descent. Narratives were elicited in the fall and spring of each year and coded for macrostructure using the Narrative Scoring Scheme, which generates a score for each macrostructure feature. Using parent report of the timing of English exposure, the children were grouped according to whether they had learned Spanish and English from birth (home English communication) or whether they had been primarily exposed to English in Head Start (school English communication [SEC]). Results Growth curve models revealed that the children's production of all seven narrative features demonstrated growth over the 4 years. Some features demonstrated slowed growth during the school years. Though the children in the SEC group began Head Start with significantly lower macrostructure scores than the children in the home English communication group, the SEC children demonstrated faster growth rates for a majority of features once schooling began. Conclusions The results provide information about the unique developmental progression of each macrostructure feature in the English narratives of bilingual children. The findings suggest that individual macrostructure features were susceptible to the effects of the timing of English exposure. The preschool years mark an important time to promote bilingual children's narrative production, especially for children exposed primarily to Spanish at home.

Vocabulary and Phonological Abilities Affect Dual Language Learners' Consonant Production Accuracy Within and Across Languages: A Large-Scale Study of 3- to 6-Year-Old Spanish-English Dual Language Learners.

Purpose This study examined factors of language ability that predict consonant production accuracy in young Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs). Method Participants were 695 Latino DLLs, ages 3;0-6;5 (years;months). Single-word productions were elicited using the Bilingual Phonological Assessment (Miccio & Hammer, 2006). Children's consonant productions were assessed using Percentage of Consonants Correct-Revised (PCC-R; Shriberg et al., 1997a). Vocabulary abilities were assessed using the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised (Woodcock et al., 2005). Multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine the effects of vocabulary abilities and cross-language consonant production abilities on children's consonant production accuracy in each language. Results Large amounts of the variance in PCC-R scores for English (R 2 = .65) and Spanish (R 2 = .43) were predicted by children's age, vocabulary scores within the same language, and PCC-R scores across languages. Conclusion Spanish-English DLLs' consonant production abilities in both languages improve with age between 3;0 and 6;5. DLLs' accuracy in each language is also affected by vocabulary abilities within the same language and by their consonant production abilities in the other language. In particular, children's consonant production abilities in each language were highly predictive of their consonant production abilities in the other language, which suggests that shared phonological skills support their development across languages.

The Narrative Macrostructure Production of Spanish-English Bilingual Preschoolers: Within-and Cross-Language Relations.

Despite the importance of understanding the narrative abilities of bilingual children, minimal research has focused on Spanish-English bilingual preschoolers. Therefore, this study examined the cross-language macrostructure and within-language microstructure relations in the English and Spanish narratives of bilingual preschoolers and examined whether language dominance impacted these relations. Narratives were elicited from 200 preschool-aged children of Latino heritage. Microstructure measures included the Number of Different Words, Mean Length of Utterance in Words, and Subordination Index. The Narrative Scoring Scheme measured macrostructure (Heilmann, Miller, Nockerts, & Dunaway, 2010). Using standardized language testing of expressive vocabulary and sentence comprehension, the children were classified into two groups: balanced dominance and Spanish dominant. Results revealed that English macrostructure and Spanish macrostructure were not related after controlling for microstructure measures within languages. Children's microstructure abilities in each language were strongly related to their macrostructure abilities within that language. Dominance did not moderate these relations. Consistent with previous research on school-age children, vocabulary was a unique predictor of macrostructure production. This study highlights the additional importance of utterance length within both languages to macrostructure during the preschool years. The absence of unique cross-language macrostructure relations and the absence of dominance group moderation may have been due to the immaturity of the children's narratives.

Effects of Home Language, Oral Language Skills, and Cross-Linguistic Phonological Abilities on Whole-Word Proximity in Spanish-English-Speaking Children.

Purpose This study examined language use and language ability factors that predict phonological whole-word proximity in young Spanish-English-speaking children. Method Participants were 199 Latino children aged 3;0-6;6 (years;months) and their mothers. Children's speech sound production in English and Spanish was assessed using the Bilingual Phonological Assessment ( Miccio & Hammer, 2006 ). Vocabulary and story retell abilities were assessed using the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised ( Woodcock, Muñoz-Sandoval, Ruef, & Alvarado, 2005 ), and information regarding the children's exposure to and use of English and Spanish was collected by means of a parent survey. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to determine the degree to which exposure to and use of each language in the home, oral language abilities, and phonological proficiency as measured by the proportion of whole-word proximity (PWP; Ingram, 2002 ) in the other language were able to predict the PWP scores in English and Spanish. Results A large portion of the variance in English and Spanish PWP scores ( R 2 = .66 and .51, respectively) was predicted by the language children use when communicating with their mothers, children's vocabulary scores, and children's PWP scores in the other language. Conclusion Language use, vocabulary, and phonological whole-word proximity in the other language are significant factors in predicting bilingual children's whole-word proximity in English and Spanish. Children's phonological abilities in one language are highly predictive of those same abilities in the other, suggesting underlying shared phonological skills across languages.

Late Talkers: A Population-Based Study of Risk Factors and School Readiness Consequences.

Purpose: This study was designed to (a) identify sociodemographic, pregnancy and birth, family health, and parenting and child care risk factors for being a late talker at 24 months of age; (b) determine whether late talkers continue to have low vocabulary at 48 months; and (c) investigate whether being a late talker plays a unique role in children's school readiness at 60 months. Method: We analyzed data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, a population-based sample of 9,600 children. Data were gathered when the children were 9, 24, 48, and 60 months old. Results: The risk of being a late talker at 24 months was significantly associated with being a boy, lower socioeconomic status, being a nonsingleton, older maternal age at birth, moderately low birth weight, lower quality parenting, receipt of day care for less than 10 hr/week, and attention problems. Being a late talker increased children's risk of having low vocabulary at 48 months and low school readiness at 60 months. Family socioeconomic status had the largest and most profound effect on children's school readiness. Conclusions: Limited vocabulary knowledge at 24 and 48 months is uniquely predictive of later school readiness. Young children with low vocabularies require additional supports prior to school entry.

The Home Literacy Environment and the English Narrative Development of Spanish-English Bilingual Children.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the home literacy environment (HLE) on the English narrative development of Spanish-English bilingual children from low-income backgrounds. Method: Longitudinal data were collected on 81 bilingual children from preschool through 1st grade. English narrative skills were assessed in the fall and spring of each year. Microstructure measures included mean length of utterance in morphemes and number of different words. The Narrative Scoring Scheme (Heilmann, Miller, Nockerts, & Dunaway, 2010) measured macrostructure. Each fall, the children's mothers reported the frequency of literacy activities and number of children's books in the home. Growth curve modeling was used to describe the children's narrative development and the impact of the HLE over time. Results: Significant growth occurred for all narrative measures. The HLE did not affect microstructure growth. The frequency with which mothers read to their children had a positive impact on the growth of the children's total Narrative Scoring Scheme scores. Other aspects of the HLE, such as the frequency with which the mothers told stories, did not affect macrostructure development. Conclusions: These results provide information about the development of English narrative abilities and demonstrate the importance of frequent book reading for the overall narrative quality of children from Spanish-speaking homes who are learning English.

Preschool Teachers' Language and Literacy Practices with Dual Language Learners.

The purposes of this study were to (a) examine the degree to which teachers used linguistically responsive practices to support the language and literacy development of Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLL) and (b) to investigate the associations between these practices and select teacher-level factors. The sample consisted of 72 preschool teachers. Observational data were collected on practices. Teachers self-reported on language and culture beliefs, Spanish speaking ability, and classroom composition. Results indicated that teachers, including those who spoke Spanish, used few linguistically responsive practices to support preschool DLLs. Only Spanish-speaking ability was related to practices. Implications for targeted professional development are discussed.

Relations Among the Home Language and Literacy Environment and Children's Language Abilities: A Study of Head Start Dual Language Learners and Their Mothers.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: This study explored the relations between Spanish-English dual language learner (DLL) children's home language and literacy experiences and their expressive vocabulary and oral comprehension abilities in Spanish and in English. Data from Spanish-English mothers of 93 preschool-age Head Start children who resided in central Pennsylvania were analyzed. Children completed the Picture Vocabulary and Oral Comprehension subtests of the Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz and the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Results revealed that the language spoken by mothers and children and the frequency of mother-child reading at home influenced children's Spanish language abilities. In addition, the frequency with which children told a story was positively related to children's performance on English oral language measures. PRACTICE OR POLICY: The findings suggest that language and literacy experiences at home have a differential impact on DLLs' language abilities in their 2 languages. Specific components of the home environment that benefit and support DLL children's language abilities are discussed.

Who Receives Speech/Language Services by 5 Years of Age in the United States?

PURPOSE: We sought to identify factors predictive of or associated with receipt of speech/language services during early childhood. We did so by analyzing data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B; Andreassen & Fletcher, 2005), a nationally representative data set maintained by the U.S. Department of Education. We addressed two research questions of particular importance to speech-language pathology practice and policy. First, do early vocabulary delays increase children's likelihood of receiving speech/language services? Second, are minority children systematically less likely to receive these services than otherwise similar White children? METHOD: Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed for a population-based sample of 9,600 children and families participating in the ECLS-B. RESULTS: Expressive vocabulary delays by 24 months of age were strongly associated with and predictive of children's receipt of speech/language services at 24, 48, and 60 months of age (adjusted odds ratio range = 4.32-16.60). Black children were less likely to receive speech/language services than otherwise similar White children at 24, 48, and 60 months of age (adjusted odds ratio range = 0.42-0.55). Lower socioeconomic status children and those whose parental primary language was other than English were also less likely to receive services. Being born with very low birth weight also significantly increased children's receipt of services at 24, 48, and 60 months of age. CONCLUSION: Expressive vocabulary delays at 24 months of age increase children's risk for later speech/language services. Increased use of culturally and linguistically sensitive practices may help racial/ethnic minority children access needed services.

Analysis of Bilingual Children's Performance on the English and Spanish Versions of the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-R (WMLS-R).

The purpose of this study was to investigate the way in which items on the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey Revised (WMLS-R) Spanish and English versions function for bilingual children from different ethnic subgroups who speak different dialects of Spanish. Using data from a sample of 324 bilingual Hispanic families and their children living on the United States mainland, differential item functioning (DIF) was conducted to determine if test items in English and Spanish functioned differently for Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican bilingual children. Data on child and parent language characteristics and children's scores on Picture Vocabulary and Story Recall subtests in English and Spanish were collected. DIF was not detected for items on the Spanish subtests. Results revealed that some items on English subtests displayed statistically and practically significant DIF. The findings indicate that there are differences in the difficulty level of WMLS-R English-form test items depending on the examinees' ethnic subgroup membership. This outcome suggests that test developers need to be mindful of potential differences in performance based on ethnic subgroup and dialect when developing standardized language assessments that may be administered to bilingual students.

24-Month-Old Children With Larger Oral Vocabularies Display Greater Academic and Behavioral Functioning at Kindergarten Entry.

Data were analyzed from a population-based, longitudinal sample of 8,650 U.S. children to (a) identify factors associated with or predictive of oral vocabulary size at 24 months of age and (b) evaluate whether oral vocabulary size is uniquely predictive of academic and behavioral functioning at kindergarten entry. Children from higher socioeconomic status households, females, and those experiencing higher quality parenting had larger oral vocabularies. Children born with very low birth weight or from households where the mother had health problems had smaller oral vocabularies. Even after extensive covariate adjustment, 24-month-old children with larger oral vocabularies displayed greater reading and mathematics achievement, increased behavioral self-regulation, and fewer externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors at kindergarten entry.

Maternal Depressive Symptomatology, Social Support, and Language Development of Bilingual Preschoolers From Low-Income Households.

PURPOSE: This study examined the impact of maternal depressive symptomatology and social support on the English and Spanish language growth of young bilingual children from low-income backgrounds. It was hypothesized that maternal depression would slow children's development in both languages but that social support would buffer the negative effect. METHOD: Longitudinal data were collected from 83 mothers of Puerto Rican descent and their children who were attending Head Start preschool for 2 years. The effects of maternal depressive symptomatology and social support from family and friends on receptive vocabulary and oral comprehension development in both languages were examined. RESULTS: Growth curve modeling revealed that maternal depressive symptomatology negatively affected Spanish receptive vocabulary development only. Maternal depression did not affect children's English receptive vocabulary or their oral comprehension in either language. Social support was not related to maternal depressive symptomatology or child language. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that maternal depression is 1 risk factor that contributes to less robust primary language development of bilingual children from low-income households. Speech-language pathologists must (a) increase their awareness of maternal depression in order to provide families with appropriate mental health referrals and (b) consider their roles as supportive adults for children whose mothers may be depressed.

Depression, Control, and Climate: An Examination of Factors Impacting Teaching Quality in Preschool Classrooms.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: This study investigated the relationship of preschool teachers' self-reported depressive symptomatology, perception of classroom control, and perception of school climate to classroom quality as measured by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K. The sample consisted of 59 urban preschool classrooms serving low-income and linguistically diverse students in the northeastern and southeastern United States. Results of hierarchical linear modeling revealed that teachers' individual reports of depressive symptomatology were significantly and negatively predictive of the observed quality of their instructional support and classroom organization. PRACTICE OR POLICY: The findings of this study have implications for increasing access to mental health supports for teachers in an effort to minimize depressive symptoms and potentially improve classroom quality.

The Language and Literacy Development of Young Dual Language Learners: A Critical Review.

The number of children living in the United States who are learning two languages is increasing greatly. However, relatively little research has been conducted on the language and literacy development of dual language learners (DLLs), particularly during the early childhood years. To summarize the extant literature and guide future research, a critical analysis of the literature was conducted. A search of major databases for studies on young typically developing DLLs between 2000-2011 yielded 182 peer-reviewed articles. Findings about DLL children's developmental trajectories in the various areas of language and literacy are presented. Much of these findings should be considered preliminary, because there were few areas where multiple studies were conducted. Conclusions were reached when sufficient evidence existed in a particular area. First, the research shows that DLLs have two separate language systems early in life. Second, differences in some areas of language development, such as vocabulary, appear to exist among DLLs depending on when they were first exposed to their second language. Third, DLLs' language and literacy development may differ from that of monolinguals, although DLLs appear to catch up over time. Fourth, little is known about factors that influence DLLs' development, although the amount of language exposure to and usage of DLLs' two languages appears to play key roles. Methodological issues are addressed, and directions for future research are discussed.

Development of 14 English grammatical morphemes in Spanish-English preschoolers.

Previous research in the USA studying Spanish-English bilingual children's language development has largely focused on children's developing abilities in Spanish. However, relatively little research has been conducted on children's English grammatical development. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the English grammatical development of bilingual (Spanish-English) Head Start children during the preschool years. The goals were to determine (a) whether there are differences in children's productions of English grammatical morphemes based on timing of English exposure and (b) which morphological structures met mastery, emerging and early emerging levels of production by bilingual children. These aims were accomplished through in-depth analyses of spontaneous language samples collected over a two-year period in Head Start. Comparisons were made between Spanish-speaking children who were exposed to English at home from birth (home English communication (HEC)) and Spanish-speaking children who were not expected to communicate in English until their entry into Head Start (school English communication (SEC)). Results indicated that children in the HEC group mastered more morphemes earlier than the children in the SEC group; however, by the end of children's second year in Head Start both groups had mastered a similar number of morphemes. Additionally, the children in both groups differed in which morphemes were mastered at the end of Head Start when compared to monolingual English-speaking children. The results of this investigation provide information to clinicians about typical English grammatical development of Spanish-English preschool children.

Predicting Spanish-English bilingual children's language abilities.

PURPOSE: In this study, the authors investigated factors that affect bilingual children's vocabulary and story recall abilities in their 2 languages. METHOD: Participants included 191 Latino families and their children, who averaged 59 months of age. Data on parental characteristics and children's exposure to and usage of Spanish and English were collected. The authors assessed children's Spanish and English vocabulary and story recall abilities using subtests of the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised ( Woodcock, Muñoz-Sandoval, Ruef, & Alvarado, 2005). RESULTS: Sizeable percentages of variation in children's English (R2 = .61) and Spanish (R2 = .55) vocabulary scores were explained by children's exposure to, and usage of, each language and maternal characteristics. Similarly, variations in children's story recall scores in English (R2 = .38) and Spanish (R2 = .19) were also explained by the factors considered in this investigation. However, the authors found that different sets of factors in each category affected children's vocabulary and story recall abilities in each language. CONCLUSIONS: Children's exposure to and usage of their two languages as well as maternal characteristics play significant roles in bilingual individuals' language development. The results highlight the importance of gathering detailed sociolinguistic information about bilingual children when these children are involved in research and when they enter the educational system.