Alzheimer's Disease Pathophysiology in the Retina.

The retina is an emerging CNS target for potential noninvasive diagnosis and tracking of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Studies have identified the pathological hallmarks of AD, including amyloid ß-protein (Aß) deposits and abnormal tau protein isoforms, in the retinas of AD patients and animal models. Moreover, structural and functional vascular abnormalities such as reduced blood flow, vascular Aß deposition, and blood-retinal barrier damage, along with inflammation and neurodegeneration, have been described in retinas of patients with mild cognitive impairment and AD dementia. Histological, biochemical, and clinical studies have demonstrated that the nature and severity of AD pathologies in the retina and brain correspond. Proteomics analysis revealed a similar pattern of dysregulated proteins and biological pathways in the retina and brain of AD patients, with enhanced inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes, impaired oxidative-phosphorylation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Notably, investigational imaging technologies can now detect AD-specific amyloid deposits, as well as vasculopathy and neurodegeneration in the retina of living AD patients, suggesting alterations at different disease stages and links to brain pathology. Current and exploratory ophthalmic imaging modalities, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT), OCT-angiography, confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy, and hyperspectral imaging, may offer promise in the clinical assessment of AD. However, further research is needed to deepen our understanding of AD's impact on the retina and its progression. To advance this field, future studies require replication in larger and diverse cohorts with confirmed AD biomarkers and standardized retinal imaging techniques. This will validate potential retinal biomarkers for AD, aiding in early screening and monitoring.

Association of Basal Forebrain Volume with Amyloid, Tau, and Cognition in Alzheimer's Disease.

Background: Degeneration of cholinergic basal forebrain (BF) neurons characterizes Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, what role the BF plays in the dynamics of AD pathophysiology has not been investigated precisely. Objective: To investigate the baseline and longitudinal roles of BF along with core neuropathologies in AD. Methods: In this retrospective cohort study, we enrolled 113 subjects (38 amyloid [Aß]-negative cognitively unimpaired, 6 Aß-positive cognitively unimpaired, 39 with prodromal AD, and 30 with AD dementia) who performed brain MRI for BF volume and cortical thickness, 18F-florbetaben PET for Aß, 18F-flortaucipir PET for tau, and detailed cognitive testing longitudinally. We investigated the baseline and longitudinal association of BF volume with Aß and tau standardized uptake value ratio and cognition. Results: Cross-sectionally, lower BF volume was not independently associated with higher cortical Aß, but it was associated with tau burden. Tau burden in the orbitofrontal, insular, lateral temporal, inferior temporo-occipital, and anterior cingulate cortices were associated with progressive BF atrophy. Lower BF volume was associated with faster Aß accumulation, mainly in the prefrontal, anterior temporal, cingulate, and medial occipital cortices. BF volume was associated with progressive decline in language and memory functions regardless of baseline Aß and tau burden. Conclusions: Tau deposition affected progressive BF atrophy, which in turn accelerated amyloid deposition, leading to a vicious cycle. Also, lower baseline BF volume independently predicted deterioration in cognitive function.

The association between posterior resting-state EEG alpha rhythms and functional MRI connectivity in older adults with subjective memory complaint.

Resting-state eyes-closed electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms are dominant in posterior cortical areas in healthy adults and are abnormal in subjective memory complaint (SMC) persons with Alzheimer's disease amyloidosis. This exploratory study in 161 SMC participants tested the relationships between those rhythms and seed-based resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) connectivity between thalamus and visual cortical networks as a function of brain amyloid burden, revealed by positron emission tomography and cognitive reserve, measured by educational attainment. The SMC participants were divided into 4 groups according to 2 factors: Education (Edu+ and Edu-) and Amyloid burden (Amy+ and Amy-). There was a statistical interaction (p < 0.05) between the two factors, and the subgroup analysis using estimated marginal means showed a positive association between the mentioned rs-fMRI connectivity and the posterior rsEEG alpha rhythms in the SMC participants with low brain amyloidosis and high CR (Amy-/Edu+). These results suggest that in SMC persons, early Alzheimer's disease amyloidosis may contrast the beneficial effects of cognitive reserve on neurophysiological oscillatory mechanisms at alpha frequencies and connectivity between the thalamus and visual cortical networks.

Predicting clinical progression trajectories of early Alzheimer's disease patients.

BACKGROUND: Models for forecasting individual clinical progression trajectories in early Alzheimer's disease (AD) are needed for optimizing clinical studies and patient monitoring. METHODS: Prediction models were constructed using a clinical trial training cohort (TC; n = 934) via a gradient boosting algorithm and then evaluated in two validation cohorts (VC 1, n = 235; VC 2, n = 421). Model inputs included baseline clinical features (cognitive function assessments, APOE ε4 status, and demographics) and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures. RESULTS: The model using clinical features achieved R2 of 0.21 and 0.31 for predicting 2-year cognitive decline in VC 1 and VC 2, respectively. Adding MRI features improved the R2 to 0.29 in VC 1, which employed the same preprocessing pipeline as the TC. Utilizing these model-based predictions for clinical trial enrichment reduced the required sample size by 20% to 49%. DISCUSSION: Our validated prediction models enable baseline prediction of clinical progression trajectories in early AD, benefiting clinical trial enrichment and various applications.

The age-specific comorbidity burden of mild cognitive impairment: a US claims database study.

BACKGROUND: Identifying individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) who are likely to progress to Alzheimer's disease and related dementia disorders (ADRD) would facilitate the development of individualized prevention plans. We investigated the association between MCI and comorbidities of ADRD. We examined the predictive potential of these comorbidities for MCI risk determination using a machine learning algorithm. METHODS: Using a retrospective matched case-control design, 5185 MCI and 15,555 non-MCI individuals aged ≥50 years were identified from MarketScan databases. Predictive models included ADRD comorbidities, age, and sex. RESULTS: Associations between 25 ADRD comorbidities and MCI were significant but weakened with increasing age groups. The odds ratios (MCI vs non-MCI) in 50-64, 65-79, and ≥ 80 years, respectively, for depression (4.4, 3.1, 2.9) and stroke/transient ischemic attack (6.4, 3.0, 2.1). The predictive potential decreased with older age groups, with ROC-AUCs 0.75, 0.70, and 0.66 respectively. Certain comorbidities were age-specific predictors. CONCLUSIONS: The comorbidity burden of MCI relative to non-MCI is age-dependent. A model based on comorbidities alone predicted an MCI diagnosis with reasonable accuracy.

Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA): radiological, biological and clinical characteristics.

Excess accumulation and aggregation of toxic soluble and insoluble amyloid-ß species in the brain are a major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. Randomized clinical trials show reduced brain amyloid-ß deposits using monoclonal antibodies that target amyloid-ß and have identified MRI signal abnormalities called amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) as possible spontaneous or treatment-related adverse events. This review provides a comprehensive state-of-the-art conceptual review of radiological features, clinical detection and classification challenges, pathophysiology, underlying biological mechanism(s) and risk factors/predictors associated with ARIA. We summarize the existing literature and current lines of evidence with ARIA-oedema/effusion (ARIA-E) and ARIA-haemosiderosis/microhaemorrhages (ARIA-H) seen across anti-amyloid clinical trials and therapeutic development. Both forms of ARIA may occur, often early, during anti-amyloid-ß monoclonal antibody treatment. Across randomized controlled trials, most ARIA cases were asymptomatic. Symptomatic ARIA-E cases often occurred at higher doses and resolved within 3-4 months or upon treatment cessation. Apolipoprotein E haplotype and treatment dosage are major risk factors for ARIA-E and ARIA-H. Presence of any microhaemorrhage on baseline MRI increases the risk of ARIA. ARIA shares many clinical, biological and pathophysiological features with Alzheimer's disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. There is a great need to conceptually link the evident synergistic interplay associated with such underlying conditions to allow clinicians and researchers to further understand, deliberate and investigate on the combined effects of these multiple pathophysiological processes. Moreover, this review article aims to better assist clinicians in detection (either observed via symptoms or visually on MRI), management based on appropriate use recommendations, and general preparedness and awareness when ARIA are observed as well as researchers in the fundamental understanding of the various antibodies in development and their associated risks of ARIA. To facilitate ARIA detection in clinical trials and clinical practice, we recommend the implementation of standardized MRI protocols and rigorous reporting standards. With the availability of approved amyloid-ß therapies in the clinic, standardized and rigorous clinical and radiological monitoring and management protocols are required to effectively detect, monitor, and manage ARIA in real-world clinical settings.

Blood-based biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: Current state and future use in a transformed global healthcare landscape.

Timely detection of the pathophysiological changes and cognitive impairment caused by Alzheimer's disease (AD) is increasingly pressing because of the advent of biomarker-guided targeted therapies that may be most effective when provided early in the disease. Currently, diagnosis and management of early AD are largely guided by clinical symptoms. FDA-approved neuroimaging and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers can aid detection and diagnosis, but the clinical implementation of these testing modalities is limited because of availability, cost, and perceived invasiveness. Blood-based biomarkers (BBBMs) may enable earlier and faster diagnoses as well as aid in risk assessment, early detection, prognosis, and management. Herein, we review data on BBBMs that are closest to clinical implementation, particularly those based on measures of amyloid-ß peptides and phosphorylated tau species. We discuss key parameters and considerations for the development and potential deployment of these BBBMs under different contexts of use and highlight challenges at the methodological, clinical, and regulatory levels.

A Systematic Review of Clinical Practice Guidelines for Alzheimer's Disease and Strategies for Future Advancements.

INTRODUCTION: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disease continuum from pathophysiologic, biomarker and clinical perspectives. With the advent of advanced technologies, diagnosing and managing patients is evolving. METHODS: A systematic literature review (SLR) of practice guidelines for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD dementia was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). This systematic literature review (SLR) aimed to summarize current clinical practice guidelines for screening, testing, diagnosis, treatment and monitoring in the AD continuum. The results of this SLR were used to propose a way forward for practice guidelines given the possible introduction of biomarker-guided technology using blood- or plasma-based assays and disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) targeted for early disease. RESULTS: 53 clinical practice guidelines were identified, 15 of which were published since 2018. Screening for asymptomatic populations was not recommended. Biomarker testing was not included in routine diagnostic practice. There was no consensus on which neurocognitive tests to use to diagnose and monitor MCI or AD dementia. Pharmacologic therapies were not recommended for MCI, while cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine were recommended for AD treatment. DISCUSSION: The pre-2018 and post-2018 practice guidelines share similar recommendations for screening, diagnosis and treatment. However, once DMTs are approved, clinicians will require guidance on the appropriate use of DMTs in a clinical setting. This guidance should include strategies for identifying eligible patients and evaluating the DMT benefit-to-risk profile to facilitate shared decision-making among physicians, patients and care partners. CONCLUSION: Regular evidence-based updates of existing guidelines for the AD continuum are required over the coming decades to integrate rapidly evolving technologic and medical scientific advances and bring emerging approaches for management of early disease into clinical practice. This will pave the way toward biomarker-guided identification and targeted treatment and the realization of precision medicine for AD.

Alzheimer's Disease and Neurosyphilis: Meaningful Commonalities and Differences of Clinical Phenotype and Pathophysiological Biomarkers.

BACKGROUND: Neurosyphilis-associated cognitive and behavioral impairment- historically coined as "general paralysis of the insane"- share clinical and neuroradiological features with the neurodegenerative disease spectrum, in particular Alzheimer's disease (AD). Anatomopathological similarities have been extensively documented, i.e., neuronal loss, fibrillary alterations, and local amyloid-ß deposition. Consequently, accurate classification and timely differential diagnosis may be challenging. OBJECTIVE: To describe clinical, bio-humoral, brain MRI, FDG-PET, and amyloid-PET features in cases of neurosyphilis with an AD-like phenotypical presentation, as well as clinical outcome in terms of response to antibiotic therapy. METHODS: We selected the studies comparing patients with AD and with neurosyphilis associated cognitive impairment, to investigate candidate biomarkers classifying the two neurological diseases. RESULTS: The neuropsychological phenotype of general paralysis, characterized by episodic memory impairment and executive disfunction, substantially mimics clinical AD features. Neuroimaging often shows diffuse or medial temporal cortical atrophy, thus contributing to a high rate of misdiagnosis. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-based analysis may provide supportive diagnostic value, since increased proteins or cells are often found in neurosyphilis, while published data on pathophysiological AD candidate biomarkers are controversial. Finally, psychometric testing using cross-domain cognitive tests, may highlight a wider range of compromised functions in neurosyphilis, involving language, attention, executive function, and spatial ability, which are atypical for AD. CONCLUSION: Neurosyphilis should be considered a potential etiological differential diagnosis of cognitive impairment whenever imaging, neuropsychological or CSF features are atypical for AD, in order to promptly start antibiotic therapy and delay or halt cognitive decline and disease progression.

Differential response to donepezil in MRI subtypes of mild cognitive impairment.

BACKGROUND: Donepezil is an approved therapy for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Results across clinical trials have been inconsistent, which may be explained by design-methodological issues, the pathophysiological heterogeneity of AD, and diversity of included study participants. We investigated whether response to donepezil differs in mild cognitive impaired (MCI) individuals demonstrating different magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) subtypes. METHODS: From the Hippocampus Study double-blind, randomized clinical trial, we included 173 MCI individuals (donepezil = 83; placebo = 90) with structural MRI data, at baseline and at clinical follow-up assessments (6-12-month). Efficacy outcomes were the annualized percentage change (APC) in hippocampal, ventricular, and total grey matter volumes, as well as in the AD cortical thickness signature. Participants were classified into MRI subtypes as typical AD, limbic-predominant, hippocampal-sparing, or minimal atrophy at baseline. We primarily applied a subtyping approach based on continuous scale of two subtyping dimensions. We also used the conventional categorical subtyping approach for comparison. RESULTS: Donepezil-treated MCI individuals showed slower atrophy rates compared to the placebo group, but only if they belonged to the minimal atrophy or hippocampal-sparing subtypes. Importantly, only the continuous subtyping approach, but not the conventional categorical approach, captured this differential response. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that individuals with MCI, with hippocampal-sparing or minimal atrophy subtype, may have improved benefit from donepezil, as compared with MCI individuals with typical or limbic-predominant patterns of atrophy. The newly proposed continuous subtyping approach may have advantages compared to the conventional categorical approach. Future research is warranted to demonstrate the potential of subtype stratification for disease prognosis and response to treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrial.gov NCT00403520. Submission Date: November 21, 2006.

The amyloid-ß pathway in Alzheimer's disease: a plain language summary.

WHAT IS THIS SUMMARY ABOUT?: This plain language summary of an article published in Molecular Psychiatry, reviews the evidence supporting the role of the amyloid-ß (Aß) pathway and its dysregulation in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and highlights the rationale for drugs targeting the Aß pathway in the early stages of the disease. WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?: Aß is a protein fragment (or peptide) that exists in several forms distinguished by their size, shape/structure, degree of solubility and disease relevance. The accumulation of Aß plaques is a hallmark of AD. However, smaller, soluble aggregates of Aß - including Aß protofibrils - also play a role in the disease. Because Aß-related disease mechanisms are complex, the diagnosis, treatment and management of AD should be reflective of and guided by up-to-date scientific knowledge and research findings in this area. This article describes the Aß protein and its role in AD, summarizing the evidence showing that altered Aß clearance from the brain may lead to the imbalance, toxic buildup and misfolding of the protein - triggering a cascade of cellular, molecular and systematic events that ultimately lead to AD. WHAT ARE THE KEY TAKEAWAYS?: The physiological balance of brain Aß levels in the context of AD is complex. Despite many unanswered questions, mounting evidence indicates that Aß has a central role in driving AD progression. A better understanding of the Aß pathway biology will help identify the best therapeutic targets for AD and inform treatment approaches.

The foundation and architecture of precision medicine in neurology and psychiatry.

Neurological and psychiatric diseases have high degrees of genetic and pathophysiological heterogeneity, irrespective of clinical manifestations. Traditional medical paradigms have focused on late-stage syndromic aspects of these diseases, with little consideration of the underlying biology. Advances in disease modeling and methodological design have paved the way for the development of precision medicine (PM), an established concept in oncology with growing attention from other medical specialties. We propose a PM architecture for central nervous system diseases built on four converging pillars: multimodal biomarkers, systems medicine, digital health technologies, and data science. We discuss Alzheimer's disease (AD), an area of significant unmet medical need, as a case-in-point for the proposed framework. AD can be seen as one of the most advanced PM-oriented disease models and as a compelling catalyzer towards PM-oriented neuroscience drug development and advanced healthcare practice.

Determinants of approved acetylcholinesterase inhibitor response outcomes in Alzheimer's disease: relevance for precision medicine in neurodegenerative diseases.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (ChEI) are the global standard of care for the symptomatic treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and show significant positive effects in neurodegenerative diseases with cognitive and behavioral symptoms. Although experimental and large-scale clinical evidence indicates the potential long-term efficacy of ChEI, primary outcomes are generally heterogeneous across outpatient clinics and regional healthcare systems. Sub-optimal dosing or slow tapering, heterogeneous guidelines about the timing for therapy initiation (prodromal versus dementia stages), healthcare providers' ambivalence to treatment, lack of disease awareness, delayed medical consultation, prescription of ChEI in non-AD cognitive disorders, contribute to the negative outcomes. We present an evidence-based overview of determinants, spanning genetic, molecular, and large-scale networks, involved in the response to ChEI in patients with AD and other neurodegenerative diseases. A comprehensive understanding of cerebral and retinal cholinergic system dysfunctions along with ChEI response predictors in AD is crucial since disease-modifying therapies will frequently be prescribed in combination with ChEI. Therapeutic algorithms tailored to genetic, biological, clinical (endo)phenotypes, and disease stages will help leverage inter-drug synergy and attain optimal combined response outcomes, in line with the precision medicine model.

Menopause hormone therapy significantly alters pathophysiological biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: This increasing body of literature indicates that menopause hormonal replacement therapy (MHT) may substantially mitigate the risk of developing late-life cognitive decline due to progressive Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathophysiology. For the first time, we investigated the question whether MHT impacts AD biomarker-informed pathophysiological dynamics in de-novo diagnosed menopausal women. METHODS: We analyzed baseline and longitudinal differences between MHT-taking and -not women in terms of concentrations of core pathophysiological AD plasma biomarkers, validated in symptomatic and cognitively healthy individuals, including biomarkers of (1) the amyloid-ß (Aß) pathway, (2) tau pathophysiology, (3) neuronal loss, and (4) axonal damage and neurodegeneration. RESULTS: We report a prominent and significant treatment response at the Aß pathway biomarker level. Women at genetic risk for AD (APOE e4 allele carriers) have particularly shown favorable results from treatment. DISCUSSION: To our knowledge, we present first prospective clinical evidence on effects of MHT on AD pathophysiology during menopause.

Biological Mechanism-based Neurology and Psychiatry: A BACE1/2 and Downstream Pathway Model.

In oncology, comprehensive omics and functional enrichment studies have led to an extensive profiling of (epi)genetic and neurobiological alterations that can be mapped onto a single tumor's clinical phenotype and divergent clinical phenotypes expressing common pathophysiological pathways. Consequently, molecular pathway-based therapeutic interventions for different cancer typologies, namely tumor type- and site-agnostic treatments, have been developed, encouraging the real-world implementation of a paradigm shift in medicine. Given the breakthrough nature of the new-generation translational research and drug development in oncology, there is an increasing rationale to transfertilize this blueprint to other medical fields, including psychiatry and neurology. In order to illustrate the emerging paradigm shift in neuroscience, we provide a state-of-the-art review of translational studies on the ß-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme (BACE) and its most studied downstream effector, neuregulin, which are molecular orchestrators of distinct biological pathways involved in several neurological and psychiatric diseases. This body of data aligns with the evidence of a shared genetic/biological architecture among Alzheimer's disease, schizoaffective disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. To facilitate a forward-looking discussion about a potential first step towards the adoption of biological pathway-based, clinical symptom-agnostic, categorization models in clinical neurology and psychiatry for precision medicine solutions, we engage in a speculative intellectual exercise gravitating around BACE-related science, which is used as a paradigmatic case here. We draw a perspective whereby pathway-based therapeutic strategies could be catalyzed by highthroughput techniques embedded in systems-scaled biology, neuroscience, and pharmacology approaches that will help overcome the constraints of traditional descriptive clinical symptom and syndrome-focused constructs in neurology and psychiatry.

Magnetic resonance imaging Locus Coeruleus abnormality in amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment is associated with future progression to dementia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Human neuropathological studies indicate that the pontine nucleus Locus Coeruleus (LC) undergoes significant and early degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. This line of evidence alongside experimental data suggests that the LC functional/structural decay may represent a critical factor for Alzheimer's disease pathophysiological and clinical progression. In the present prospective study, we used Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) with LC-sensitive sequence (LC-MRI) to investigate in vivo the LC involvement in Alzheimer's disease progression, and whether specific LC-MRI features at baseline are associated with prognosis and cognitive performance in amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. METHODS: LC-MRI parameters were measured at baseline by a template-based method on 3.0-T magnetic resonance images in 34 patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia, 73 patients with amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment, and 53 cognitively intact individuals. A thorough neurological and neuropsychological assessment was performed at baseline and 2.5-year follow-up. RESULTS: In subjects with Mild Cognitive Impairment who converted to dementia (n = 32), the LC intensity and number of LC-related voxels were significantly lower than in cognitively intact individuals, resembling those observed in demented patients. Such a reduction was not detected in Mild Cognitive Impairment individuals, who remained stable at follow-up. In Mild Cognitive Impairment subjects converting to dementia, LC-MRI parameter reduction was maximal in the rostral part of the left nucleus. Structural equation modeling analysis showed that LC-MRI parameters positively correlate with cognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight a potential role of LC-MRI for predicting clinical progression in Mild Cognitive Impairment and support the key role of LC degeneration in the Alzheimer clinical continuum.

Biological determinants of blood-based cytokines in the Alzheimer's disease clinical continuum.

Converging translational and clinical research strongly indicates that altered immune and inflammatory homeostasis (neuroinflammation) plays a critical pathophysiological role in Alzheimer's disease (AD), across the clinical continuum. A dualistic role of neuroinflammation may account for a complex biological phenomenon, representing a potential pharmacological target. Emerging blood-based pathophysiological biomarkers, such as cytokines (Cyt) and interleukins (ILs), have been studied as indicators of neuroinflammation in AD. However, inconsistent results have been reported probably due to a lack of standardization of assays with methodological and analytical differences. We used machine-learning and a cross-validation-based statical workflow to explore and analyze the potential impact of key biological factors, such as age, sex, and apolipoprotein-E (APOE) genotype (the major genetic risk factor for late-onset AD) on Cyt. A set of Cyt was selected based on previous literature, and we investigated any potential association in a pooled cohort of cognitively healthy, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and AD-like dementia patients. We also performed explorative analyses to extrapolate preliminary clinical insights. We found a robust sex effect on IL12 and an APOE-related difference in IL10, with the latter being also related to the presence of advanced cognitive decline. IL1ß was the variable most significantly associated with MCI-to-dementia conversion over a 2.5 year-clinical follow-up. Although preliminary, our data support further clinical research to understand whether plasma Cyt may represent reliable and noninvasive tools serving the investigation of neuroimmune and inflammatory dynamics in AD and to foster biomarker-guided pathway-based therapeutic approaches, within the precision medicine development framework.

The use of lumbar puncture and safety recommendations in Alzheimer's disease: a plain language summary.

WHAT IS THIS SUMMARY ABOUT?: This is a plain language summary of an article published in Alzheimer's & Dementia. It looks at a type of test called a lumbar puncture (also known as spinal tap) used in people suspected of having Alzheimer's disease or some other form of dementia. This summary focuses on how to do a lumbar puncture safely. WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?: Alzheimer's disease is a progressive condition, which means it gets worse over time. This leads to difficulties with thinking and memory. People with Alzheimer's disease show a build up of proteins called amyloid-ß and tau in the brain. This is followed by a gradual loss of brain cells and brain function. The changes in the brain are thought to occur years before symptoms appear. Lumbar puncture is a medical procedure during which samples of cerebrospinal fluid are collected. In Alzheimer's disease, it is used to examine cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers that can help diagnose disease. Lumbar puncture is traditionally considered as a painful and invasive procedure with frequent side effects. However, multiple studies indicate that a lumbar puncture can be performed safely. Side effects are typically mild and do not require specialist intervention. WHAT ARE THE KEY TAKEAWAYS?: Despite the low risk of serious complications associated with a lumbar puncture, physicians and their patients may be reluctant to recommend or undergo this procedure. Patient education, specialist training, as well as new methods concerning patient safety are important factors to support the widespread use of lumbar puncture in Alzheimer's disease.