Plasmoid Formation and Strong Radiative Cooling in a Driven Magnetic Reconnection Experiment.

We present the first experimental study of plasmoid formation in a magnetic reconnection layer undergoing rapid radiative cooling, a regime relevant to extreme astrophysical plasmas. Two exploding aluminum wire arrays, driven by the Z machine, generate a reconnection layer (S_{L}≈120) in which the cooling rate far exceeds the hydrodynamic transit rate (τ_{hydro}/τ_{cool}>100). The reconnection layer generates a transient burst of >1 keV x-ray emission, consistent with the formation and subsequent rapid cooling of the layer. Time-gated x-ray images show fast-moving (up to 50 km s^{-1}) hotspots in the layer, consistent with the presence of plasmoids in 3D resistive magnetohydrodynamic simulations. X-ray spectroscopy shows that these hotspots generate the majority of Al K-shell emission (around 1.6 keV) prior to the onset of cooling, and exhibit temperatures (170 eV) much greater than that of the plasma inflows and the rest of the reconnection layer, thus providing insight into the generation of high-energy radiation in radiatively cooled reconnection events.

X-ray self-emission imaging with spherically bent Bragg crystals on the Z-machine.

An x-ray imaging scheme using spherically bent crystals was implemented on the Z-machine to image x rays emitted by the hot, dense plasma generated by a Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) target. This diagnostic relies on a spherically bent crystal to capture x-ray emission over a narrow spectral range (<15 eV), which is established by a limiting aperture placed on the Rowland circle. The spherical crystal optic provides the necessary high-throughput and large field-of-view required to produce a bright image over the entire, one-cm length of the emitting column of a plasma. The average spatial resolution was measured and determined to be 18 µm for the highest resolution configuration. With this resolution, the radial size of the stagnation column can be accurately determined and radial structures, such as bifurcations in the column, are clearly resolved. The success of the spherical-crystal imager has motivated the implementation of a new, two-crystal configuration for identifying sources of spectral line emission using a differential imaging technique.

Demonstration of improved laser preheat with a cryogenically cooled magnetized liner inertial fusion platform.

We report on progress implementing and testing cryogenically cooled platforms for Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) experiments. Two cryogenically cooled experimental platforms were developed: an integrated platform fielded on the Z pulsed power generator that combines magnetization, laser preheat, and pulsed-power-driven fuel compression and a laser-only platform in a separate chamber that enables measurements of the laser preheat energy using shadowgraphy measurements. The laser-only experiments suggest that ∼89% ± 10% of the incident energy is coupled to the fuel in cooled targets across the energy range tested, significantly higher than previous warm experiments that achieved at most 67% coupling and in line with simulation predictions. The laser preheat configuration was applied to a cryogenically cooled integrated experiment that used a novel cryostat configuration that cooled the MagLIF liner from both ends. The integrated experiment, z3576, coupled 2.32 ± 0.25 kJ preheat energy to the fuel, the highest to-date, demonstrated excellent temperature control and nominal current delivery, and produced one of the highest pressure stagnations as determined by a Bayesian analysis of the data.

Radiation, optical, power flow, and electrical diagnostics at the Z facility: Layout and techniques utilized to operate in the harsh environment.

The Z machine is a current driver producing up to 30 MA in 100 ns that utilizes a wide range of diagnostics to assess accelerator performance and target behavior conduct experiments that use the Z target as a source of radiation or high pressures. We review the existing suite of diagnostic systems, including their locations and primary configurations. The diagnostics are grouped in the following categories: pulsed power diagnostics, x-ray power and energy, x-ray spectroscopy, x-ray imaging (including backlighting, power flow, and velocimetry), and nuclear detectors (including neutron activation). We will also briefly summarize the primary imaging detectors we use at Z: image plates, x-ray and visible film, microchannel plates, and the ultrafast x-ray imager. The Z shot produces a harsh environment that interferes with diagnostic operation and data retrieval. We term these detrimental processes "threats" of which only partial quantifications and precise sources are known. We summarize the threats and describe techniques utilized in many of the systems to reduce noise and backgrounds.

Does Lent affect rates of deliberate self-harm?

BACKGROUND: Research has shown that religious affiliation has a protective effect against deliberate self-harm. This is particularly pronounced in periods of increased religious significance, such as periods of worship, celebration, and fasting. However, no data exist as to whether this effect is present during the Christian period of Lent. Our hypothesis was that Lent would lead to decreased presentations of self-harm emergency department (ED) in a predominantly Catholic area of Ireland. METHODS: Following ethical approval, we retrospectively analysed data on presentations to the ED of University Hospital Limerick during the period of Lent and the 40 days immediately preceding it. Frequency data were compared using Pearson's chi-squared tests in SPSS. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the overall number of people presenting to the ED with self-harm during Lent compared to the 40 days preceding it (χ2 = 0.75, df = 1, p > 0.05), and there was no difference in methods of self-harm used. However, there was a significant increase in attendances with self-harm during Lent in the over 50's age group (χ2 = 7.76, df = 1, p = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Based on our study, Lent is not a protective factor for deliberate self-harm and was associated with increased presentations in the over 50's age group. Further large-scale studies are warranted to investigate this finding as it has implications for prevention and management of deliberate self-harm.

Topography of bent crystals with microradian resolution in one dimension.

Optimum performance in x-ray imaging and spectroscopy of plasmas with bent crystals is achievable only when the crystal reflects the x rays theoretically perfectly across its entire surface. However, typical thin quartz (101̄1) crystal samples kept flat by direct attachment to a flat substrate reflect 8 keV x rays differently across their surface, on a scale comparable to the ideal rocking curve. Additional processing improves the uniformity. Irradiation of flat crystals with collimated, monochromatic x rays in rocking curve topography shows such problems directly, with microradian resolution. Nonuniform x-ray reflection is more difficult to document for strongly bent crystals because, then, monochromatic, collimated x rays satisfy the Bragg condition only along a narrow stripe that may be too narrow to resolve with the available cameras. However, it can be resolved with a knife edge that moves through the reflected x rays with the necessary spatial precision as demonstrated here for a bent silicon crystal. This shows qualitatively similar imperfections in the reflection as flat quartz and as the bent quartz analyzers reported on previously with lower resolution.

Observation and diagnostic application of Kr K-shell emission in magnetized liner inertial fusion experiments at Z.

In a series of Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) experiments performed at the Z pulsed power accelerator of Sandia National Laboratories, beryllium liners filled with deuterium gas pressures in the 4-8 atm range and a tracer amount of krypton were imploded. At the collapse of the cylindrical implosion, temperatures in the 1-3 keV range and atom number densities of ∼1023 cm-3 were expected. The plasma was magnetized with a 10 T axial magnetic field. Krypton was added to the fuel for diagnosing implosion plasma conditions. Krypton K-shell line emission was recorded with the CRITR time-integrated transmission crystal x-ray spectrometer. The observation shows n = 2 to n = 1 line emissions in B-, Be-, Li-, and He-like Kr ions and is characteristic of the highest electron temperatures achieved in the thermonuclear plasma. Detailed modeling of the krypton atomic kinetics and radiation physics permits us to interpret the composite spectral feature, and it demonstrates that the spectrum is temperature sensitive. We discuss temperatures extracted from the krypton data analysis for experiments performed with several filling pressures.

Performance Scaling in Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion Experiments.

We present experimental results from the first systematic study of performance scaling with drive parameters for a magnetoinertial fusion concept. In magnetized liner inertial fusion experiments, the burn-averaged ion temperature doubles to 3.1 keV and the primary deuterium-deuterium neutron yield increases by more than an order of magnitude to 1.1×10^{13} (2 kJ deuterium-tritium equivalent) through a simultaneous increase in the applied magnetic field (from 10.4 to 15.9 T), laser preheat energy (from 0.46 to 1.2 kJ), and current coupling (from 16 to 20 MA). Individual parametric scans of the initial magnetic field and laser preheat energy show the expected trends, demonstrating the importance of magnetic insulation and the impact of the Nernst effect for this concept. A drive-current scan shows that present experiments operate close to the point where implosion stability is a limiting factor in performance, demonstrating the need to raise fuel pressure as drive current is increased. Simulations that capture these experimental trends indicate that another order of magnitude increase in yield on the Z facility is possible with additional increases of input parameters.

Temperature distributions and gradients in laser-heated plasmas relevant to magnetized liner inertial fusion.

We present two-dimensional temperature measurements of magnetized and unmagnetized plasma experiments performed at Z relevant to the preheat stage in magnetized liner inertial fusion. The deuterium gas fill was doped with a trace amount of argon for spectroscopy purposes, and time-integrated spatially resolved spectra and narrow-band images were collected in both experiments. The spectrum and image data were included in two separate multiobjective analysis methods to extract the electron temperature spatial distribution T_{e}(r,z). The results indicate that the magnetic field increases T_{e}, the axial extent of the laser heating, and the magnitude of the radial temperature gradients. Comparisons with simulations reveal that the simulations overpredict the extent of the laser heating and underpredict the temperature. Temperature gradient scale lengths extracted from the measurements also permit an assessment of the importance of nonlocal heat transport.

Large-Displacement Vertical Electrostatic Microactuator Dynamics using Duty-Cycled Softening/Stiffening Parametric Resonance.

Electrostatic microactuators with large vertical scanning range (several hundred microns) at high frequency (hundreds to thousands of hertz) and chips sizes compatible with endoscopic microscopy have recently been demonstrated based on parametric resonance. This paper examines the use and modeling of mixed softening/hardening dynamics to help produce large ranges of motion in this class of mirrors. Origin of spring stiffening behavior in actuator design is described, followed by non-dimensional analysis of actuator motion trends. Experimental results are presented for a sample actuator design with up to 480 µm displacement at 1225 Hz and 60 V. Comparison to predicted trends and comments on benefits and limitations of modeling are provided.

How high energy fluxes may affect Rayleigh-Taylor instability growth in young supernova remnants.

Energy-transport effects can alter the structure that develops as a supernova evolves into a supernova remnant. The Rayleigh-Taylor instability is thought to produce structure at the interface between the stellar ejecta and the circumstellar matter, based on simple models and hydrodynamic simulations. Here we report experimental results from the National Ignition Facility to explore how large energy fluxes, which are present in supernovae, affect this structure. We observed a reduction in Rayleigh-Taylor growth. In analyzing the comparison with supernova SN1993J, a Type II supernova, we found that the energy fluxes produced by heat conduction appear to be larger than the radiative energy fluxes, and large enough to have dramatic consequences. No reported astrophysical simulations have included radiation and heat conduction self-consistently in modeling supernova remnants and these dynamics should be noted in the understanding of young supernova remnants.

Use of the physical environment to support everyday activities for people with dementia: A systematic review.

Difficulty with everyday activities is a key symptom and defining feature of dementia, relating to subjective reports of well-being and overall quality of life. One way to support individuals in their daily activities is by modifying the physical environment to make it easier to interact with during activity performance. This systematic review explores the range of studies available using physical environmental strategies to support performance in everyday activities for people with dementia. Seventy-two relevant studies were identified by the search. Physical environmental strategies included changes to the global environment and to architectural features, use of moveable environmental aids and tailored individual approaches. Strategies supported general everyday activity functioning (N = 19), as well as specific activities, particularly mealtimes (N = 15) and orientation in space (N = 16); however, few studies were found that focused on aspects of personal care such as dressing (N = 1) and showering or the preferred hobbies of individuals (N = 0). Overall, there appeared to be a lack of research within private home environments, and of studies which specify the dementia syndrome or the whole neuropsychological profile of people with dementia. More work is needed to extend theoretical understandings of how people with dementia interact with their environments so that these spaces can be designed to further support activities of daily living performance. Future work in this field could also incorporate the perspectives and preferences of those living with dementia.

A 7.2 keV spherical x-ray crystal backlighter for two-frame, two-color backlighting at Sandia's Z Pulsed Power Facility.

Many experiments on Sandia National Laboratories' Z Pulsed Power Facility-a 30 MA, 100 ns rise-time, pulsed-power driver-use a monochromatic quartz crystal backlighter system at 1.865 keV (Si Heα) or 6.151 keV (Mn Heα) x-ray energy to radiograph an imploding liner (cylindrical tube) or wire array z-pinch. The x-ray source is generated by the Z-Beamlet laser, which provides two 527-nm, 1 kJ, 1-ns laser pulses. Radiographs of imploding, thick-walled beryllium liners at convergence ratios CR above 15 [CR=ri(0)/ri(t)] using the 6.151-keV backlighter system were too opaque to identify the inner radius ri of the liner with high confidence, demonstrating the need for a higher-energy x-ray radiography system. Here, we present a 7.242 keV backlighter system using a Ge(335) spherical crystal with the Co Heα resonance line. This system operates at a similar Bragg angle as the existing 1.865 keV and 6.151 keV backlighters, enhancing our capabilities for two-color, two-frame radiography without modifying the system integration at Z. The first data taken at Z include 6.2-keV and 7.2-keV two-color radiographs as well as radiographs of low-convergence (CR about 4-5), high-areal-density liner implosions.

Cross-calibration of Fuji TR image plate and RAR 2492 x-ray film to determine the response of a DITABIS Super Micron image plate scanner.

Fuji TR image plate is frequently used as a replacement detector medium for x-ray imaging and spectroscopy diagnostics at NIF, Omega, and Z facilities. However, the familiar Fuji BAS line of image plate scanners is no longer supported by the industry, and so a replacement scanning system is needed. While the General Electric Typhoon line of scanners could replace the Fuji systems, the shift away from photo stimulated luminescence units to 16-bit grayscale Tag Image File Format (TIFF) leaves a discontinuity when comparing data collected from both systems. For the purposes of quantitative spectroscopy, a known unit of intensity applied to the grayscale values of the TIFF is needed. The DITABIS Super Micron image plate scanning system was tested and shown to potentially rival the resolution and dynamic range of Kodak RAR 2492 x-ray film. However, the absolute sensitivity of the scanner is unknown. In this work, a methodology to cross calibrate Fuji TR image plate and the absolutely calibrated Kodak RAR 2492 x-ray film is presented. Details of the experimental configurations used are included. An energy dependent scale factor to convert Fuji TR IP scanned on a DITABIS Super Micron scanner from 16-bit grayscale TIFF to intensity units (i.e., photons per square micron) is discussed.

A meta-review of stress, coping and interventions in dementia and dementia caregiving.

BACKGROUND: There has been a substantial number of systematic reviews of stress, coping and interventions for people with dementia and their caregivers. This paper provides a meta-review of this literature 1988-2014. METHOD: A meta-review was carried out of systematic reviews of stress, coping and interventions for people with dementia and their caregivers, using SCOPUS, Google Scholar and CINAHL Plus databases and manual searches. RESULTS: The meta-review identified 45 systematic reviews, of which 15 were meta-analyses. Thirty one reviews addressed the effects of interventions and 14 addressed the results of correlational studies of factors associated with stress and coping. Of the 31 systematic reviews dealing with intervention studies, 22 focused on caregivers, 6 focused on people with dementia and 3 addressed both groups. Overall, benefits in terms of psychological measures of mental health and depression were generally found for the use of problem focused coping strategies and acceptance and social-emotional support coping strategies. Poor outcomes were associated with wishful thinking, denial, and avoidance coping strategies. The interventions addressed in the systematic reviews were extremely varied and encompassed Psychosocial, Psychoeducational, Technical, Therapy, Support Groups and Multicomponent interventions. Specific outcome measures used in the primary sources covered by the systematic reviews were also extremely varied but could be grouped into three dimensions, viz., a broad dimension of "Psychological Well-Being v. Psychological Morbidity" and two narrower dimensions of "Knowledge and Coping" and of "Institutionalisation Delay". CONCLUSIONS: This meta-review supports the conclusion that being a caregiver for people with dementia is associated with psychological stress and physical ill-health. Benefits in terms of mental health and depression were generally found for caregiver coping strategies involving problem focus, acceptance and social-emotional support. Negative outcomes for caregivers were associated with wishful thinking, denial and avoidance coping strategies. Psychosocial and Psychoeducational interventions were beneficial for caregivers and for people with dementia. Support groups, Multicomponent interventions and Joint Engagements by both caregivers and people with dementia were generally found to be beneficial. It was notable that virtually all reviews addressed very general coping strategies for stress broadly considered, rather than in terms of specific remedies for specific sources of stress. Investigation of specific stressors and remedies would seem to be a useful area for future research.

Analysis and implementation of a space resolving spherical crystal spectrometer for x-ray Thomson scattering experiments.

The application of a space-resolving spectrometer to X-ray Thomson Scattering (XRTS) experiments has the potential to advance the study of warm dense matter. This has motivated the design of a spherical crystal spectrometer, which is a doubly focusing geometry with an overall high sensitivity and the capability of providing high-resolution, space-resolved spectra. A detailed analysis of the image fluence and crystal throughput in this geometry is carried out and analytical estimates of these quantities are presented. This analysis informed the design of a new spectrometer intended for future XRTS experiments on the Z-machine. The new spectrometer collects 6 keV x-rays with a spherically bent Ge (422) crystal and focuses the collected x-rays onto the Rowland circle. The spectrometer was built and then tested with a foam target. The resulting high-quality spectra prove that a spherical spectrometer is a viable diagnostic for XRTS experiments.

Experimental demonstration of fusion-relevant conditions in magnetized liner inertial fusion.

This Letter presents results from the first fully integrated experiments testing the magnetized liner inertial fusion concept [S. A. Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 056303 (2010)], in which a cylinder of deuterium gas with a preimposed 10 Taxial magnetic field is heated by Z beamlet, a 2.5 kJ, 1 TW laser, and magnetically imploded by a 19 MA, 100 ns rise time current on the Z facility. Despite a predicted peak implosion velocity of only 70 km = s, the fuel reaches a stagnation temperature of approximately 3 keV, with T(e) ≈ T(i), and produces up to 2 x 10(12) thermonuclear deuterium-deuterium neutrons. X-ray emission indicates a hot fuel region with full width at half maximum ranging from 60 to 120 µm over a 6 mm height and lasting approximately 2 ns. Greater than 10(10) secondary deuterium-tritium neutrons were observed, indicating significant fuel magnetization given that the estimated radial areal density of the plasma is only 2 mg = cm(2).

Understanding fuel magnetization and mix using secondary nuclear reactions in magneto-inertial fusion.

Magnetizing the fuel in inertial confinement fusion relaxes ignition requirements by reducing thermal conductivity and changing the physics of burn product confinement. Diagnosing the level of fuel magnetization during burn is critical to understanding target performance in magneto-inertial fusion (MIF) implosions. In pure deuterium fusion plasma, 1.01 MeV tritons are emitted during deuterium-deuterium fusion and can undergo secondary deuterium-tritium reactions before exiting the fuel. Increasing the fuel magnetization elongates the path lengths through the fuel of some of the tritons, enhancing their probability of reaction. Based on this feature, a method to diagnose fuel magnetization using the ratio of overall deuterium-tritium to deuterium-deuterium neutron yields is developed. Analysis of anisotropies in the secondary neutron energy spectra further constrain the measurement. Secondary reactions also are shown to provide an upper bound for the volumetric fuel-pusher mix in MIF. The analysis is applied to recent MIF experiments [M. R. Gomez et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 155003 (2014)] on the Z Pulsed Power Facility, indicating that significant magnetic confinement of charged burn products was achieved and suggesting a relatively low-mix environment. Both of these are essential features of future ignition-scale MIF designs.

Tracking an imploding cylinder with photonic Doppler velocimetry.

Cylindrical implosion offers a path to extreme material states, reaching considerably higher pressures than planar geometry. However, diagnosing compressed material in cylindrical geometry is challenging. Time-resolved velocimetry, a standard technique in planar compression, is difficult to incorporate into cylindrical experiments. This paper describes the use of photonic Doppler velocimetry (PDV) in magnetically driven cylindrical compression experiments at the Sandia Z machine. With this diagnostic, it is possible to track the interior of an imploding cylinder beyond 20 km/s. A "leapfrog" implementation is described to support velocities well above the bandwidth limits of standard PDV measurements.

Investigation of high-temperature bright plasma X-ray sources produced in 5-MA X-pinch experiments.

Using solid, machined X-pinch targets driven by currents rising from 0 to 5-6 MA in 60 ns, we observed bright spots of 5-9-keV continuum radiation from 5±2-µm diameter regions. The >6-keV radiation is emitted in about 0.4 ns, and the bright spots are roughly 75 times brighter than the bright spots measured at 1 MA. A total x-ray power of 10 TW peak and yields of 165±20 kJ were emitted from a 3-mm height. The 3-5-keV continuum radiation had a 50-90-GW peak power and 0.15-0.35-kJ yield. The continuum is plausibly from a 1275±75-eV blackbody or alternatively from a 3500±500-eV bremsstrahlung source.