Release of coarse woody detritus-related carbon: a synthesis across forest biomes.

BACKGROUND: Recent increases in forest tree mortality should increase the abundance coarse woody detritus (CWD) and ultimately lead to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, the time course of carbon release from CWD is not well understood. We compiled CWD decomposition rate-constants (i.e., k) to examine how tree species, piece diameter, position (i.e., standing versus downed), canopy openness, and macroclimate influenced k. To illustrate their implications we modeled the effect of species and position on estimates of decomposition-related carbon flux. We examined a subset of currently used models to determine if their structure accounted for these factors. RESULTS: Globally k of downed CWD varied at least 244-fold with interspecies variation at individual sites up to 76-fold. While k generally decreased with increasing piece diameter, under open canopies the opposite occurred. Standing CWD sometimes exhibited little decomposition, but sometimes had k values up to 3 times faster than downed CWD. There was a clear response of k to mean annual temperature of ≈ 2.6 times per 10 â„ƒ; however, there was considerable variation for a given mean annual temperature related to species, diameter, and position. A key feature of carbon release from CWD after disturbance was the "evolution" of the ecosystem-level k value as positions and species mixtures of the remaining CWD changed. Variations in decomposition caused by disturbance (e.g., changes in species, positions, sizes, and microclimate) had the potential to cause net carbon fluxes to the atmosphere to be highly nonlinear. While several models currently being used for carbon accounting and assessing land-use/climate change would potentially capture some of these post disturbance changes in fluxes and carbon balances, many would not. CONCLUSIONS: While much has been learned in the last 5 decades about CWD decomposition, to fully understand the time course of carbon release from increased mortality and other aspects of global change a new phase of global CWD research that is more systematic, experimental, and replicated needs to be initiated. If our findings are to be fully applied in modeling, an approach acknowledging how the rate of carbon release evolves over time should be implemented.

Presumptive Development of Fibrotic Lung Disease From Bordetella bronchiseptica and Post-infectious Bronchiolitis Obliterans in a Dog.

A 7-month-old Miniature Poodle acquired from a pet store developed cough and subsequently respiratory distress compatible with Bordetella bronchiseptica infection. Partial but incomplete resolution of clinical signs and thoracic radiographic/computed tomographic imaging lesions were noted with use of susceptibility-guided antimicrobials. Additionally, a concern for an infectious nidus led to left cranial lung lobectomy at 9 months of age. Histopathology predominantly revealed polypoid and constrictive bronchiolitis obliterans (i.e., small airway disease). Intermittent antimicrobial administration over the next 5 years failed to blunt progressive clinical signs. At 8 years, necropsy confirmed severe airway-centered interstitial fibrosis. This pattern of fibrosis was strongly suggestive of underlying small airway disease as the trigger. In retrospect, post-infectious bronchiolitis obliterans (PIBO), a syndrome in young children caused by pulmonary infections but not yet recognized in pet dogs, likely initiated a pathway of fibrosis in this dog. In dogs with risk factors for community-acquired pathogens such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, PIBO is a differential diagnosis with development of severe, persistent respiratory signs incompletely responsive to appropriate antimicrobials. Untreated PIBO may lead to airway-centered interstitial fibrosis. Future study is required to determine if targeted therapy of PIBO could alter the course of end-stage pulmonary fibrosis.

Estimating uncertainty in the volume and carbon storage of downed coarse woody debris.

Downed coarse woody debris, also known as coarse woody detritus or downed dead wood, is challenging to estimate for many reasons, including irregular shapes, multiple stages of decay, and the difficulty of identifying species. In addition, some properties are commonly not measured, such as wood density and carbon concentration. As a result, there have been few previous evaluations of uncertainty in estimates of downed coarse woody debris, which are necessary for analysis and interpretation of the data. To address this shortcoming, we quantified uncertainties in estimates of downed coarse woody debris volume and carbon storage using data collected from permanent forest inventory plots in the northeastern United States by the Forest Inventory and Analysis program of the USDA Forest Service. Quality assurance data collected from blind remeasurement audits were used to quantify error in diameter measurements, hollowness of logs, species identification, and decay class determination. Uncertainty estimates for density, collapse ratio, and carbon concentration were taken from the literature. Estimates of individual sources of uncertainty were combined using Monte Carlo methods. Volume estimates were more reliable than carbon storage, with an average 95% confidence interval of 15.9 m3 /ha across the 79 plots evaluated, which was less than the mean of 31.2 m3 /ha. Estimates of carbon storage (and mass) were more uncertain, due to poorly constrained estimates of the density of wood. For carbon storage, the average 95% confidence interval was 11.1 Mg C/ha, which was larger than the mean of 4.6 Mg C/ha. Accounting for the collapse of dead wood as it decomposes would improve estimates of both volume and carbon storage. On the other hand, our analyses suggest that consideration of the hollowness of downed coarse woody debris pieces could be eliminated in this region, with little effect. This study demonstrates how uncertainty analysis can be used to quantify confidence in estimates and to help identify where best to allocate resources to improve monitoring designs.

Is recreational running associated with earlier delivery and lower birth weight in women who continue to run during pregnancy? An international retrospective cohort study of running habits of 1293 female runners during pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Increasingly, women of reproductive age participate in recreational running, but its impact on pregnancy outcome is unknown. We investigated whether running affects gestational age at delivery and birth weight as indicators of cervical integrity and placental function, respectively. METHODS: 1293 female participants were recruited from parkrun, which organises weekly runs involving 1.25 million runners across 450 parks worldwide. Those under 16 or unable to provide outcome data were excluded. Women were categorised according to whether they continued to run during pregnancy or not. Those who continued were further stratified dependent on average weekly kilometres, and which trimester they ran until. Retrospectively collected primary outcomes were gestational age at delivery and birthweight centile. Other outcomes included assisted vaginal delivery rate and prematurity at clinically important gestations. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in gestational age at delivery: 279.0 vs 279.6 days (mean difference 0.6 days, CI -1.3 to 2.4 days; P=0.55) or birthweight centile: 46.9%vs 44.9% (mean difference 2.0%, CI -1.3% to -5.3%; P=0.22) in women who stopped running and those who continued, respectively. Assisted vaginal delivery rate was increased in women who ran: 195/714 (27%) vs 128/579 (22%) (OR 1.32; CI 1.02 to 1.71; P=0.03). CONCLUSION: Continuing to run during pregnancy does not appear to affect gestational age or birthweight centile, regardless of mean weekly distance or stage of pregnancy. Assisted vaginal delivery rates were higher in women who ran, possibly due to increased pelvic floor muscle tone. Randomised prospective analysis is necessary to further explore these findings.

Land use strategies to mitigate climate change in carbon dense temperate forests.

Strategies to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions through forestry activities have been proposed, but ecosystem process-based integration of climate change, enhanced CO2, disturbance from fire, and management actions at regional scales are extremely limited. Here, we examine the relative merits of afforestation, reforestation, management changes, and harvest residue bioenergy use in the Pacific Northwest. This region represents some of the highest carbon density forests in the world, which can store carbon in trees for 800 y or more. Oregon's net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB) was equivalent to 72% of total emissions in 2011-2015. By 2100, simulations show increased net carbon uptake with little change in wildfires. Reforestation, afforestation, lengthened harvest cycles on private lands, and restricting harvest on public lands increase NECB 56% by 2100, with the latter two actions contributing the most. Resultant cobenefits included water availability and biodiversity, primarily from increased forest area, age, and species diversity. Converting 127,000 ha of irrigated grass crops to native forests could decrease irrigation demand by 233 billion m3⋅y-1 Utilizing harvest residues for bioenergy production instead of leaving them in forests to decompose increased emissions in the short-term (50 y), reducing mitigation effectiveness. Increasing forest carbon on public lands reduced emissions compared with storage in wood products because the residence time is more than twice that of wood products. Hence, temperate forests with high carbon densities and lower vulnerability to mortality have substantial potential for reducing forest sector emissions. Our analysis framework provides a template for assessments in other temperate regions.

A Bi-fluorescence complementation system to detect associations between the Endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.

Close contacts between the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and the mitochondrial outer membrane facilitate efficient transfer of lipids between the organelles and coordinate Ca2+ signalling and stress responses. Changes to this coupling is associated with a number of metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and motor neuron disease. The distance between the two membranes at regions of close apposition is below the resolution of conventional light microscopy, which makes analysis of these interactions challenging. Here we describe a new bifluorescence complementation (BiFC) method that labels a subset of ER-mitochondrial associations in fixed and living cells. The total number of ER-mitochondria associations detected by this approach increases in response to tunicamycin-induced ER stress, serum deprivation or reduced levels of mitofusin 2 (MFN2). This method will facilitate the analysis of dynamic interactions between the ER and mitochondrial membranes.

Roles for the VCP co-factors Npl4 and Ufd1 in neuronal function in Drosophila melanogaster.

The VCP-Ufd1-Npl4 complex regulates proteasomal processing within cells by delivering ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome for degradation. Mutations in VCP are associated with two neurodegenerative diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and inclusion body myopathy with Paget's disease of the bone and frontotemporal dementia (IBMPFD), and extensive study has revealed crucial functions of VCP within neurons. By contrast, little is known about the functions of Npl4 or Ufd1 in vivo. Using neuronal-specific knockdown of Npl4 or Ufd1 in Drosophila melanogaster, we infer that Npl4 contributes to microtubule organization within developing motor neurons. Moreover, Npl4 RNAi flies present with neurodegenerative phenotypes including progressive locomotor deficits, reduced lifespan and increased accumulation of TAR DNA-binding protein-43 homolog (TBPH). Knockdown, but not overexpression, of TBPH also exacerbates Npl4 RNAi-associated adult-onset neurodegenerative phenotypes. In contrast, we find that neuronal knockdown of Ufd1 has little effect on neuromuscular junction (NMJ) organization, TBPH accumulation or adult behaviour. These findings suggest the differing neuronal functions of Npl4 and Ufd1 in vivo.

Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Standard Schnauzers: Retrospective Study of 15 Cases.

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is the most common myocardial disorder of dogs, typically affecting large and giant breeds. The purpose of this study was to describe the clinical features of DCM in standard schnauzers. Medical records for 15 standard schnauzers diagnosed with DCM were reviewed. The median age at diagnosis of DCM was 1.6 yr, with all dogs developing left-sided congestive heart failure (CHF). The median age of onset of CHF was 1.6 yr, and was significantly shorter in males (1.5 yr) than for females (2.35 yr). The median survival time after diagnosis of CHF was 22 days, and was shorter in males (13 days) than females (62 days). The occurrence of early onset DCM in multiple closely related standard schnauzers suggests a familial predisposition in this breed. Pedigree analysis confirmed common ancestry for all DCM affected dogs with a most likely autosomal recessive mode of inheritance.

Evaluating carbon storage, timber harvest, and habitat possibilities for a Western Cascades (USA) forest landscape.

Forest policymakers and managers have long sought ways to evaluate the capability of forest landscapes to jointly produce timber, habitat, and other ecosystem services in response to forest management. Currently, carbon is of particular interest as policies for increasing carbon storage on federal lands are being proposed. However, a challenge in joint production analysis of forest management is adequately representing ecological conditions and processes that influence joint production relationships. We used simulation models of vegetation structure, forest sector carbon, and potential wildlife habitat to characterize landscape-level joint production possibilities for carbon storage, timber harvest, and habitat for seven wildlife species across a range of forest management regimes. We sought to (1) characterize the general relationships of production possibilities for combinations of carbon storage, timber, and habitat, and (2) identify management variables that most influence joint production relationships. Our 160 000-ha study landscape featured environmental conditions typical of forests in the Western Cascade Mountains of Oregon (USA). Our results indicate that managing forests for carbon storage involves trade-offs among timber harvest and habitat for focal wildlife species, depending on the disturbance interval and utilization intensity followed. Joint production possibilities for wildlife species varied in shape, ranging from competitive to complementary to compound, reflecting niche breadth and habitat component needs of species examined. Managing Pacific Northwest forests to store forest sector carbon can be roughly complementary with habitat for Northern Spotted Owl, Olive-sided Flycatcher, and red tree vole. However, managing forests to increase carbon storage potentially can be competitive with timber production and habitat for Pacific marten, Pileated Woodpecker, and Western Bluebird, depending on the disturbance interval and harvest intensity chosen. Our analysis suggests that joint production possibilities under forest management regimes currently typical on industrial forest lands (e.g., 40- to 80-yr rotations with some tree retention for wildlife) represent but a small fraction of joint production outcomes possible in the region. Although the theoretical boundaries of the production possibilities sets we developed are probably unachievable in the current management environment, they arguably define the long-term potential of managing forests to produce multiple ecosystem services within and across multiple forest ownerships.

Plant Species Rather Than Climate Greatly Alters the Temporal Pattern of Litter Chemical Composition During Long-Term Decomposition.

A feedback between decomposition and litter chemical composition occurs with decomposition altering composition that in turn influences the decomposition rate. Elucidating the temporal pattern of chemical composition is vital to understand this feedback, but the effects of plant species and climate on chemical changes remain poorly understood, especially over multiple years. In a 10-year decomposition experiment with litter of four species (Acer saccharum, Drypetes glauca, Pinus resinosa, and Thuja plicata) from four sites that range from the arctic to tropics, we determined the abundance of 11 litter chemical constituents that were grouped into waxes, carbohydrates, lignin/tannins, and proteins/peptides using advanced (13)C solid-state NMR techniques. Decomposition generally led to an enrichment of waxes and a depletion of carbohydrates, whereas the changes of other chemical constituents were inconsistent. Inconsistent convergence in chemical compositions during decomposition was observed among different litter species across a range of site conditions, whereas one litter species converged under different climate conditions. Our data clearly demonstrate that plant species rather than climate greatly alters the temporal pattern of litter chemical composition, suggesting the decomposition-chemistry feedback varies among different plant species.

Long-term litter decomposition controlled by manganese redox cycling.

Litter decomposition is a keystone ecosystem process impacting nutrient cycling and productivity, soil properties, and the terrestrial carbon (C) balance, but the factors regulating decomposition rate are still poorly understood. Traditional models assume that the rate is controlled by litter quality, relying on parameters such as lignin content as predictors. However, a strong correlation has been observed between the manganese (Mn) content of litter and decomposition rates across a variety of forest ecosystems. Here, we show that long-term litter decomposition in forest ecosystems is tightly coupled to Mn redox cycling. Over 7 years of litter decomposition, microbial transformation of litter was paralleled by variations in Mn oxidation state and concentration. A detailed chemical imaging analysis of the litter revealed that fungi recruit and redistribute unreactive Mn(2+) provided by fresh plant litter to produce oxidative Mn(3+) species at sites of active decay, with Mn eventually accumulating as insoluble Mn(3+/4+) oxides. Formation of reactive Mn(3+) species coincided with the generation of aromatic oxidation products, providing direct proof of the previously posited role of Mn(3+)-based oxidizers in the breakdown of litter. Our results suggest that the litter-decomposing machinery at our coniferous forest site depends on the ability of plants and microbes to supply, accumulate, and regenerate short-lived Mn(3+) species in the litter layer. This observation indicates that biogeochemical constraints on bioavailability, mobility, and reactivity of Mn in the plant-soil system may have a profound impact on litter decomposition rates.

Whole Body MRI in the Staging of Esophageal Cancer--A Prospective Comparison with Whole Body 18F-FDG PET-CT.

BACKGROUND: Positron emission tomography and computed tomography (PET-CT) is established in the staging of esophageal cancer. In this study, an MRI protocol was designed to emulate the anatomical (T1-weighed (T1W) and T2W imaging) and functional information (diffusion-weighted imaging) provided by PET-CT. METHODS: In all, 49 patients with carcinoma of the esophagus underwent PET-CT and whole-body MRI (WBMRI). WBMRI was carried out using dedicated sequences tailored to detect metastatic disease at each area corresponding to the anatomical coverage of PET-CT. Nodal status was determined from histopathology and endoscopic ultrasound biopsy (EUS). RESULTS: PET-CT and WBMRI identified the primary tumor in 46/49 (94%) and 48/49 (98%) patients, respectively. Nodal analysis in patients undergoing surgery (n = 18) yielded sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV) and accuracy of 27, 100, 100, 47 and 56% for PET-CT, compared with 30, 100, 100, 53 and 61% for WBMRI. When nodal analysis included both surgical specimens and EUS criteria (n = 39), sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV and accuracy were 46, 91, 93, 40 and 59% for PET-CT compared with 59, 92, 94, 50 and 67% for WBMRI. Both imaging modalities identified distant metastases in 2 patients. CONCLUSION: WBMRI has similar accuracy to PET-CT in detecting the primary tumor, nodal deposits and for exclusion of systemic metastatic disease.

White matter disease and an incomplete circle of Willis.

INTRODUCTION: White matter disease occurs as a consequence of small vessel disease; however, hypoperfusion may also play a role. We investigated whether patients with less cerebral vessel anastomosis may develop more white matter disease. METHODS: Magnetic resonance imaging (1.5t) with intracranial magnetic resonance angiography data was collected on a convenience sample between July 2008 and January 2009. All patients were independently assessed for circle of Willis variants by two researchers and categorized into two groups: those with a complete circle of Willis and those with an incomplete circle of Willis (absent vessels). The complete group was sub-divided into a classical group (entirely normal circle of Willis) and a hypoplastic group (hypoplasia but no absent vessels). White matter disease assessment was conducted for these groups, by two researchers blind to magnetic resonance angiography findings, on all patients over 50 years old. RESULTS: The circle of Willis was characterized in 163 patients, while 90 (>50 years) underwent white matter disease assessment. The kappa inter-rater reliability between both circle of Willis assessors and between both white matter disease assessors was 0.57 and 0.63, respectively. The prevalence of circle of Willis variants strongly correlated with the seminal paper by Riggs and Rupp. Independent of age and gender, those with an incomplete circle of Willis (n = 68) exhibited 58% more white matter disease than those with a complete circle of Willis (n = 22) (white matter disease score 6.52 vs. 4.11, respectively, P = 0.03). Patients with absent anterior vessels exhibited more frontal white matter disease than those with intact anterior vessels (3.7 vs. 1.72, P < 0.001). Patients with absent posterior vessels exhibited more occipital white matter disease than those with intact posterior vessels (2.52 vs. 1.34, P = 0.014). CONCLUSION: These data suggest that congenital absence of anastomotic capacity correlates with incident white matter disease, thus alluding to a hypoperfusion mechanism in the development of white matter disease.

Clinical presentation and referral characteristics of food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome in the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES) is a pediatric non-IgE-mediated allergic reaction to foods. The diagnosis of FPIES is clinical, with children presenting typically 2 to 4 hours after ingestion of a food protein. The most striking symptoms are vomiting, lethargy, and pallor. Misdiagnosis and delay in presentation to an allergist or gastroenterologist are common. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the pathway of patients with FPIES presenting to a specialist clinic in the United Kingdom to ascertain whether they experienced delays or misdiagnoses and to investigate their symptoms and triggers. METHODS: All patients with FPIES presenting over a 3-year period (2010-2013) in a tertiary pediatric allergy clinic in London were analyzed retrospectively. This was performed by searching electronically for all patients with a diagnosis of FPIES and manually reviewing paper notes. Presenting symptoms and management pathways were collated. RESULTS: Fifty-four patients were identified, with an average age of onset at 8 months. They initially presented to medical professionals other than an allergist or gastroenterologist. The most frequent presenting symptom was vomiting followed by signs suggesting shock or hypotension and diarrhea. Differential diagnoses included gastroenteritis, sepsis, and surgical abnormalities. The main eliciting foods were cow's milk, fish, egg, soy, and wheat. CONCLUSION: In the United Kingdom, FPIES typically has its onset at 8 months. Patients experience a delay of 12 months in the diagnosis of FPIES and frequently have multiple episodes and interim diagnoses. A great need remains for enhanced education of medical practitioners dealing with children about the varied presentations of FPIES.

Evaluation of a pharmacist-led, 6-month weight loss program in obese patients.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a pharmacist-led weight loss program based on the general requirements set forth by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services' (CMS) Decision Memo for Intensive Behavioral Therapy for Obesity. SETTING: Onsite Walgreens pharmacy located inside the main administration building of Maricopa County in downtown Phoenix, AZ. PRACTICE DESCRIPTION: A prevention and wellness behavioral therapy weight loss program was developed for patients of the Maricopa County on-site Walgreens. PRACTICE INNOVATION: Current pharmacy patients were recruited to attend 14 one-on-one, pharmacist-led, face-to-face behavioral therapy sessions during a 6-month period that addressed diet, exercise, and nutrition. Interactive PowerPoint presentations were used throughout the sessions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was mean weight loss from baseline to the end of the study. Secondary outcomes included changes in body composition, changes in nutritional intake, and participant satisfaction. RESULTS: Of 12 enrolled participants, 11 (92%) completed the program. The mean weight loss from baseline to the end of the program was 5 kg (P <0.001), representing an average 4.5% weight loss. There was a statistically significant decrease in body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and percent visceral fat from baseline to the end of the study; however, the increase in percent muscle mass, decrease in percent body fat, and change in nutrition intake was not statistically significant. Overall, the participants rated the program highly. CONCLUSION: Pharmacists are accessible health care providers who can effectively provide intensive behavioral therapy for obesity in a manner consistent with the CMS guidelines.

Decomposition and nitrogen dynamics of (15)N-labeled leaf, root, and twig litter in temperate coniferous forests.

Litter nutrient dynamics contribute significantly to biogeochemical cycling in forest ecosystems. We examined how site environment and initial substrate quality influence decomposition and nitrogen (N) dynamics of multiple litter types. A 2.5-year decomposition study was installed in the Oregon Coast Range and West Cascades using (15)N-labeled litter from Acer macrophyllum, Picea sitchensis, and Pseudotsuga menziesii. Mass loss for leaf litter was similar between the two sites, while root and twig litter exhibited greater mass loss in the Coast Range. Mass loss was greatest from leaves and roots, and species differences in mass loss were more prominent in the Coast Range. All litter types and species mineralized N early in the decomposition process; only A. macrophyllum leaves exhibited a net N immobilization phase. There were no site differences with respect to litter N dynamics despite differences in site N availability, and litter N mineralization patterns were species-specific. For multiple litter × species combinations, the difference between gross and net N mineralization was significant, and gross mineralization was 7-20 % greater than net mineralization. The mineralization results suggest that initial litter chemistry may be an important driver of litter N dynamics. Our study demonstrates that greater amounts of N are cycling through these systems than may be quantified by only measuring net mineralization and challenges current leaf-based biogeochemical theory regarding patterns of N immobilization and mineralization.

A synthesis of current knowledge on forests and carbon storage in the United States.

Using forests to mitigate climate change has gained much interest in science and policy discussions. We examine the evidence for carbon benefits, environmental and monetary costs, risks and trade-offs for a variety of activities in three general strategies: (1) land use change to increase forest area (afforestation) and avoid deforestation; (2) carbon management in existing forests; and (3) the use of wood as biomass energy, in place of other building materials, or in wood products for carbon storage. We found that many strategies can increase forest sector carbon mitigation above the current 162-256 Tg C/yr, and that many strategies have co-benefits such as biodiversity, water, and economic opportunities. Each strategy also has trade-offs, risks, and uncertainties including possible leakage, permanence, disturbances, and climate change effects. Because approximately 60% of the carbon lost through deforestation and harvesting from 1700 to 1935 has not yet been recovered and because some strategies store carbon in forest products or use biomass energy, the biological potential for forest sector carbon mitigation is large. Several studies suggest that using these strategies could offset as much as 10-20% of current U.S. fossil fuel emissions. To obtain such large offsets in the United States would require a combination of afforesting up to one-third of cropland or pastureland, using the equivalent of about one-half of the gross annual forest growth for biomass energy, or implementing more intensive management to increase forest growth on one-third of forestland. Such large offsets would require substantial trade-offs, such as lower agricultural production and non-carbon ecosystem services from forests. The effectiveness of activities could be diluted by negative leakage effects and increasing disturbance regimes. Because forest carbon loss contributes to increasing climate risk and because climate change may impede regeneration following disturbance, avoiding deforestation and promoting regeneration after disturbance should receive high priority as policy considerations. Policies to encourage programs or projects that influence forest carbon sequestration and offset fossil fuel emissions should also consider major items such as leakage, the cyclical nature of forest growth and regrowth, and the extensive demand for and movement of forest products globally, and other greenhouse gas effects, such as methane and nitrous oxide emissions, and recognize other environmental benefits of forests, such as biodiversity, nutrient management, and watershed protection. Activities that contribute to helping forests adapt to the effects of climate change, and which also complement forest carbon storage strategies, would be prudent.