Social psychological models of choice behavior and drivers' left turns.

ABSTRACT. The authors reanalyzed data from a simulated left-turn experiment (P. A. Hancock, J. K. Caird, S. Shekhar, & M. Vercruyssen, 1991) to test the adequacy of the nonlinear Gray-Tallman satisfaction balance model of choice behavior (L. N. Gray & I. Tallman, 1984) in predicting left turns. Participants (Hancock et al., 1991) were 40 experienced U.S. drivers who were exposed to simulated oncoming traffic; the size of the vehicle (motorcycle, compact vehicle, full-sized vehicle, delivery truck), its speed (10-70 mph, or 16-112 kmph), and the intervehicle time gap (3-9 s) varied. Hancock et al. (1991) measured (a) the likelihood of a left turn and (b) the occurrence of a collision. The probability of a left turn was greater for larger intervehicle time gaps and for oncoming smaller vehicles traveling at higher speeds. The Gray-Tallman (1984) model explained 69% of the variation in turning versus 57% for a linear regression model. In making decisions people tend to treat the values and costs affecting choices in a multiplicative, rather than linear, fashion. The Gray-Tallman model also has the potential for incorporating, both theoretically and mathematically, an unlimited range of potential values and costs that may influence left turn decisions.

Does supervision by a lifeguard make a difference in rule violations? Effects of lifeguards' scanning.

Systematic observations were made of five lifeguards at indoor public swimming pools. Scanning by lifeguards was associated with lower incidences of rule violations by swimmers. Greater numbers of lifeguards patrolling the pool areas tended to reduce violations. Rules violations tended to be fewer when adult-to-child ratios were low, suggesting that monitoring by a parent or an adult may encourage rule compliance.

Directing wayfinders with maps: the effects of gender, age, route complexity, and familiarity with the environment.

The participants were 360 Canadian undergraduates. After receiving written scenarios involving a campus visitor seeking direction to a nearby destination (simple route) or a distant destination (complex route), they drew maps to that destination. The authors varied the visitor's gender, age, and familiarity with campus. They analyzed the content of the students' maps in terms of cardial indicators (compass grid, correct north-south orientation), landmarks, labeled buildings, directional arrows, and supplemental written directions. The men tended to provide more cartographically complete maps than the women, though there were no gender differences in use of landmarks or labeled buildings. The men were significantly more inclined than the women to take visitor characteristics into account, providing more complete maps to visitors navigating complex routes, to newcomers, and to older visitors who were unfamiliar with the campus. The men had more confidence that their maps would successfully lead visitors to their destinations. Route complexity led to greater use of landmarks, labeled buildings, and cardinal indicators. The participants' self-reported familiarity with campus had little effect on their direction giving, except for a greater use of labeled buildings in maps.

Lifeguards' vigilance: effects of child-adult ratio and lifeguard positioning on scanning by lifeguards.

Observers recorded visual scanning by four lifeguards at three indoor public swimming pools. Scanning increased as a positive function of the ratio of children to adult swimmers, i.e., scanning was greater when the ratio was high, suggesting that lifeguards became more concerned about the risks to children and the ability of nearby adult swimmers to monitor these children when the number of children significantly exceeded the number of adults. Absolute numbers of children, however, decreased number of scans, possibly because of greater number of incidents and rule violations requiring lifeguards' attention which competed with watching the pool. Lifeguards were more likely to scan a pool area when they were in elevated towers versus standing on the pool decks. Lifeguards' scanning declined later in the day, possibly due to fatigue or because of competing activities of pool maintenance.

Perceived risk of work-related injury and intentions to change employment.

A survey of 263 employed men and women examined the effect of length of employment, perceived ability to find a better job, positive job features (pay, job security, and intrinsic interest), and perceived risk of occupational injury on intentions to stay with or leave one's current employer. Perceived risk of occupational injury significantly predicted one's belief that the person would not stay with the current employer. Perceived inability to find alternative employment lessened the desirability of leaving the current employer. Desire to leave was lower when a job was rated highly for pay, security, and intrinsic interest. Length of employment, as a measure of job commitment, was not a factor.

The effects of shopping cart design and prior behavioral history on children's standing in cart seats.

Twenty one males 17-22 months old took part in an experiment of the effects of shopping cart design on standing in the seat section of the cart and speed of standing. Two different cart designs were examined. It was predicted that standing would be more likely in the over-the-counter vs deep basket type of cart since the former is less confining because of a larger seating area and larger leg holes. In fact, standing was slightly more likely to occur in the deep basket cart. The strongest predictors of standing, however, were subjects' prior incidents of standing in the cart seat and climbing out of the cart seat in grocery store settings. Thus, inter-individual differences in learning history may determine a child's risk of injury around shopping carts more than features of the cart's design.

The safety of older pedestrians at signal-controlled crossings.

The extent to which pedestrians checked for oncoming traffic before crossing signal-controlled intersections on busy city streets was observed. Contrary to the portrayal of older pedestrians as being less aware of the traffic environment, pedestrians over the age of fifty were the most cautious, especially under dangerous traffic conditions. Older pedestrians were least likely to use other pedestrians as "guides" to safety and, instead, checked for oncoming traffic themselves before crossing. There was an overall tendency for pedestrians to check for oncoming traffic, the fewer the number of other pedestrians crossing the intersection. "Diffusion of responsibility" and "safety in numbers" explanations were offered to account for this. Wide intersections elicited more traffic checking than narrow intersections only if traffic conditions were hazardous.

Husbands' involvement in housework: effects of relative earning power and masculine orientation.

A survey of 138 husbands in dual-earner households examined factors influencing participation in two household tasks, cleaning and cooking. Path analyses showed that husbands were more involved in these tasks if they had a nontraditional view of masculinity and if they perceived little conflict between their work and family life. Also, the greater the wives' contribution to family income, the greater the husbands' participation in cleaning and cooking. Finally, a traditional view of masculinity tended to decrease involvement in household tasks by increasing the perception of conflict between work and home life.

Factors influencing involvement in farm accidents.

A self-administered questionnaire completed by 683 male farmers showed individuals incurring a farming-related injury more likely to score higher on a measure of personal risk-taking and to believe that accidents were inevitable (fatalism). Specific safe farming practices--wearing protective clothing and operating machinery safely--were associated with lower likelihood of injury. Traditional predictors of involvement in accidents (age, exposure to hazards, and work experience) were not significant.

Accident history and perceived risk of injury as factors influencing fatalism about occupational accidents.

In a survey of 263 employed men and women fatalism about workplace accidents was rated highest by respondents who perceived that their current jobs were dangerous and posed a high risk of personal injury. An individual's prior accident history was not associated with ratings on Accident Fatalism.

Effects of blind pedestrians on motorists.

Factors that influenced 187 Canadian motorists to stop or not stop when blind pedestrians started to cross a busy city street were investigated. The motorists were significantly more likely to stop for a blind pedestrian than for a sighted pedestrian. This finding is consistent with the norm of social responsibility. However, the impact of this norm was dampened by the possible costs entailed in stopping, such as the risk to the blind pedestrian of crossing when other motorists had failed to see him or were unwilling to stop. These perceived costs, tending to decrease motorist helpfulness, were reduced by the addition of a sighted companion. The motorists were also more likely to stop for pairs of pedestrians than for single pedestrians.

The impact of shopping cart restraints and adult supervision on near injuries to children in grocery stores.

Factors influencing the likelihood of near injuries to 235 children in grocery stores were investigated. Two-person research teams observed children and accompanying adults in 29 supermarkets. Injuries, positioning of children in or around a grocery cart, handling of hazards, attempts to climb in or out of the cart, parental monitoring, and demographic features of the child and adult were recorded. Ten of the 235 children (4.3%) suffered minor injuries. The overall injury rate was equivalent to 43 injuries per 1,000 child shopping visits. The major predictor of injuries was being inside the shopping cart versus in the cartseat or outside the cart. Most at risk were children over the age of three inside the cart who attempted to climb out and who received poor adult supervision. Risk of injury for this group was more than six times the risk of injury for the entire sample. A majority of injuries were scrapes, pinches, or bumps that were the result of falling within the cart basket. Attempts to climb out of the cart were also associated with injury. Placing the child outside the grocery cart reduced the risk of injury. In conjunction with this, carts with shallow or small baskets may discourage parents from placing children in carts, thereby reducing the risk of injury. While duration of shopping trip was not significantly related to risk of injury, there was a tendency for accidents to occur when shopping trips exceeded 23 minutes.

Effects of pedestrians' visibility and signs on motorists' yielding.

A field experiment was carried out in which a pedestrian attempted to evoke motorists' stopping at a marked crosswalk during the daytime. Previous research suggested that reflective clothing worn by pedestrians at night might increase the ability of motorists to see pedestrians and to take precautionary measures when driving. In the present study, the effects of a pedestrian wearing bright versus drab clothing on motorists' behavior were assessed. Motorists were more likely to stop for a brightly clothed pedestrian. In addition, the brightly clothed pedestrian did not have to wait as long before eliciting a stop. One explanation is that the bright clothing worn by the pedestrian made more salient the motorist's legal duty to stop for the pedestrian in a crosswalk. The presence of a warning sign located 48 meters before the crosswalk had no significant effect on motorists' yielding under daytime conditions.

Older motorist yielding to pedestrians: are older drivers inattentive and unwilling to stop?

A field experiment investigated factors expected to influence yielding by motorists to a pedestrian waiting to cross a city street. One-hundred and sixty motorists passing through a marked crosswalk were participants. In addition, data were gathered on 120 baseline motorists who passed through the test intersection when a pedestrian was not present. A comparison of the age composition of the experimental sample with the baseline sample showed that the youngest group of drivers, i.e., under twenty-six years, was significantly more represented in the experimental sample and was more likely to stop for the experimental pedestrian than were motorists in other age groups. Contrary to a prediction that older motorists over age sixty-five would be less attentive to a pedestrian and, therefore, less likely to stop, this oldest group of drivers was not underrepresented in the experimental sample; i.e., their likelihood of yielding matched their likelihood of driving through the intersection. Further analysis, however, revealed that motorists over sixty-five years of age were significantly more likely than younger motorists to stop for a pedestrian who was conspicuously dressed (bright, highly visible clothing) and who was moving to cross the street rather than patiently waiting. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of difficulties that older drivers have in judging the speed of moving objects in a traffic environment.

Precautionary street crossing by elderly pedestrians.

Street crossing behavior of pedestrians was observed under varying roadway conditions and traffic volumes. The extent to which pedestrians checked for oncoming traffic before crossing signal controlled intersections on a dangerous downtown street was observed. Contrary to the stereotypical portrayal of older pedestrians as being less cognizant of the traffic environment, pedestrians in this study over the age of fifty years were the most cautious. Older pedestrians were also more cautious under the most potentially hazardous crossing conditions: when roadways were snow- or ice-covered and when traffic volumes were low or moderate, allowing vehicles to move rapidly through intersections.

Safety of children in grocery stores: the impact of cartseat use in shopping carts and parental monitoring.

Two hundred thirty-six preschool children who were accompanied by an adult were observed in 29 grocery stores. Observational techniques were used to record their likelihood of handling potentially hazardous products while shopping. Twenty-four percent of children handled such products one or more times. More than half of the subjects were confined in grocery cartseats while shopping. This confinement was observed to be the greatest deterrent to handling hazards, regardless of the child's age or the quality of parental supervision. More than 80% of adults left their children unattended on at least one occasion. Adult supervision became critical in preventing contact with hazards if children were not confined in cartseats, with the odds of handling hazards increasing where supervision was relaxed. Loglinear analysis showed that a child's age was also a major factor in predicting handling of hazards, with children older than 3 years more likely to handle hazards than those 3 years or younger. There was also a tendency for adult females to confine older girls more than boys in cartseats.

Perception of risk and curb standing at street corners by older pedestrians.

The distances stood from passing traffic of 696 pedestrians waiting to cross signal-controlled intersections were observed. Previous research on elderly pedestrians suggested that the elderly are less perceptive of dangers in the traffic environment because of diminished cognitive abilities. In fact, observations established that older pedestrians were the safest age group, standing the farthest away from traffic. This was especially the case for the most at-risk group, older women. In addition, older pedestrians were the most able to discern greater risks of accidental injury under nighttime crossing conditions and to take appropriate safety precautions.

Perceived risk of occupational injury: control over pace of work and blue-collar versus white-collar work.

Factors influencing the perception of risk of work-related accidental injury were investigated for 244 full-time employed men and women. Autonomy and freedom in one's work were the strongest predictors of perceived risk, with those respondents exercising the greatest control over their work perceiving the least risk of accidental injury. Two other dimensions of control over work-task repetitiveness and speed of pace-had weaker effects. Respondents using primarily blue collar kinds of equipment felt more at risk than those using white collar equipment or no equipment. This result is interpreted in terms of the impact of 'sudden harm' on perceptions. Present working conditions, represented by the number of hazards identified in the workplace, predicted perceived risk more strongly than previous accident history.

Do liberated women drive their husbands to drink? The impact of masculine orientation, status inconsistency, and family life satisfaction on male liquor consumption.

Weekly liquor consumption by 62 men married to working wives was found to increase as a function of dissatisfaction with family life and perceived conflict of wife's work and the marriage. Relatively high education in a wife (status inconsistency) directly increased family satisfaction, decreased perceived conflict, and, thereby, indirectly reduced liquor consumption. A liberated masculine orientation facilitated the positive impact of relative education on family life satisfaction and the impact of education on lack of perceived conflict of wife's work and the marital relationship; consequently, the indirect effect of relative education on liquor consumption occurred only for "liberated" husbands.