Evidence That the Central Nervous System Can Induce a Modification at the Neuromuscular Junction That Contributes to the Maintenance of a Behavioral Response.

Neurons within the spinal cord are sensitive to environmental relations and can bring about a behavioral modification without input from the brain. For example, rats that have undergone a thoracic (T2) transection can learn to maintain a hind leg in a flexed position to minimize exposure to a noxious electrical stimulation (shock). Inactivating neurons within the spinal cord with lidocaine, or cutting communication between the spinal cord and the periphery (sciatic transection), eliminates the capacity to learn, which implies that it depends on spinal neurons. Here we show that these manipulations have no effect on the maintenance of the learned response, which implicates a peripheral process. EMG showed that learning augments the muscular response evoked by motoneuron output and that this effect survives a sciatic transection. Quantitative fluorescent imaging revealed that training brings about an increase in the area and intensity of ACh receptor labeling at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). It is hypothesized that efferent motoneuron output, in conjunction with electrical stimulation of the tibialis anterior muscle, strengthens the connection at the NMJ in a Hebbian manner. Supporting this, paired stimulation of the efferent nerve and tibialis anterior generated an increase in flexion duration and augmented the evoked electrical response without input from the spinal cord. Evidence is presented that glutamatergic signaling contributes to plasticity at the NMJ. Labeling for vesicular glutamate transporter is evident at the motor endplate. Intramuscular application of an NMDAR antagonist blocked the acquisition/maintenance of the learned response and the strengthening of the evoked electrical response.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is designed to faithfully elicit a muscular contraction in response to neural input. From this perspective, encoding environmental relations (learning) and the maintenance of a behavioral modification over time (memory) are assumed to reflect only modifications upstream from the NMJ, within the CNS. The current results challenge this view. Rats were trained to maintain a hind leg in a flexed position to avoid noxious stimulation. As expected, treatments that inhibit activity within the CNS, or disrupt peripheral communication, prevented learning. These manipulations did not affect the maintenance of the acquired response. The results imply that a peripheral modification at the NMJ contributes to the maintenance of the learned response.

Anna Freud and the Holocaust: mourning and survival guilt.

This article explores the period of Anna Freud's life after she was informed of the deaths of her aunts in Nazi concentration camps during World War II. Understanding of this period may be enhanced by consideration of the role of the Holocaust in her complicated mourning process. A series of her dreams is re-examined from the point of view of survivor guilt and the complicated mourning of her father in the context of the Holocaust. It is argued that unconscious reproaches against her father led to an identification with him that included his 'decision' to leave his sisters in Vienna. Survivor guilt in relation to her aunts' murders is seen as one of the complicating factors in the mourning process. In addition the article discusses the possible role of this period, particularly her work with child concentration camp survivors, in her post-war writing. The noted duality in her work between innovation and conservatism is explored in terms of an outcome of the mourning process of this period. It is argued that her views on mourning, trauma, attachment, and the widening scope of indications for psychoanalysis were influenced by the outcome of her mourning process. Finally, an irony is noted in the fact that her attitude about altruism never changed despite the role of the altruism of others in her rescue from the Nazis.

Peripheral noxious stimulation reduces withdrawal threshold to mechanical stimuli after spinal cord injury: role of tumor necrosis factor alpha and apoptosis.

We previously showed that peripheral noxious input after spinal cord injury (SCI) inhibits beneficial spinal plasticity and impairs recovery of locomotor and bladder functions. These observations suggest that noxious input may similarly affect the development and maintenance of chronic neuropathic pain, an important consequence of SCI. In adult rats with a moderate contusion SCI, we investigated the effect of noxious tail stimulation, administered 1 day after SCI on mechanical withdrawal responses to von Frey stimuli from 1 to 28 days after treatment. In addition, because the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) is implicated in numerous injury-induced processes including pain hypersensitivity, we assessed the temporal and spatial expression of TNFα, TNF receptors, and several downstream signaling targets after stimulation. Our results showed that unlike sham surgery or SCI only, nociceptive stimulation after SCI induced mechanical sensitivity by 24h. These behavioral changes were accompanied by increased expression of TNFα. Cellular assessments of downstream targets of TNFα revealed that nociceptive stimulation increased the expression of caspase 8 and the active subunit (12 kDa) of caspase 3, indicative of active apoptosis at a time point consistent with the onset of mechanical allodynia. In addition, immunohistochemical analysis revealed distinct morphological signs of apoptosis in neurons and microglia at 24h after stimulation. Interestingly, expression of the inflammatory mediator NFκB was unaltered by nociceptive stimulation. These results suggest that noxious input caudal to the level of SCI can increase the onset and expression of behavioral responses indicative of pain, potentially involving TNFα signaling.

Age-related changes in rostral basal forebrain cholinergic and GABAergic projection neurons: relationship with spatial impairment.

Both cholinergic and GABAergic projections from the rostral basal forebrain contribute to hippocampal function and mnemonic abilities. While dysfunction of cholinergic neurons has been heavily implicated in age-related memory decline, significantly less is known regarding how age-related changes in codistributed GABAergic projection neurons contribute to a decline in hippocampal-dependent spatial learning. In the current study, confocal stereology was used to quantify cholinergic (choline acetyltransferase [ChAT] immunopositive) neurons, GABAergic projection (glutamic decarboxylase 67 [GAD67] immunopositive) neurons, and total (neuronal nuclei [NeuN] immunopositive) neurons in the rostral basal forebrain of young and aged rats that were first characterized on a spatial learning task. ChAT immunopositive neurons were significantly but modestly reduced in aged rats. Although ChAT immunopositive neuron number was strongly correlated with spatial learning abilities among young rats, the reduction of ChAT immunopositive neurons was not associated with impaired spatial learning in aged rats. In contrast, the number of GAD67 immunopositive neurons was robustly and selectively elevated in aged rats that exhibited impaired spatial learning. Interestingly, the total number of rostral basal forebrain neurons was comparable in young and aged rats, regardless of their cognitive status. These data demonstrate differential effects of age on phenotypically distinct rostral basal forebrain projection neurons, and implicate dysregulated cholinergic and GABAergic septohippocampal circuitry in age-related mnemonic decline.

Dalí's homage to Rothko: a defense against fusion with the victim.

This paper explores the thematic content of a painting by Salvador Dalí in homage to artist Mark Rothko, completed after the latter's suicide. The manifest title of the work suggests respect for Rothko, but the latent intent of the painting, the author suggests, is more of a memoriam to Rothko in a complex identification with him. Among other psychological issues, the author elaborates on two factors that may have played a part in Dalí's artistic reaction to Rothko's suicide: the death of the artist's infant brother nine months before his own birth, and his lifelong struggle against fusion with the victim (Orgel 1974a, 1974b).