ABSTRACT
Β-arrestins are intracellular scaffolding proteins that have multifaceted roles in different types of disorders. In this review article, we gave a summary about the discovery, characterization and classification of these proteins and their intracellular functions. Moreover, this review article focused on the hepatic expression of ß-arrestins and their hepatocellular distribution and function in each liver cell type. Also, we showed that ß-arrestins are key regulators of distinct types of hepatic disorders. On the other hand, we addressed some important points that have never been studied before regarding the role of ß-arrestins in certain types of hepatic disorders which needs more research efforts to cover.
Subject(s)
Arrestins , Liver Diseases , Humans , beta-Arrestins/metabolism , Arrestins/metabolism , Signal Transduction , Proteins/metabolismABSTRACT
Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitors are a class of antidiabetic medications that cause glucose-dependent increase in incretins in diabetic patients. One of the two incretins, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), beside its insulinotropic activity, has been studied for extra pancreatic effects. Most of DPP4 inhibitors (DPP4i) have been investigated in in vivo and in vitro models of diabetic and nondiabetic cardiovascular diseases including heart failure, hypertension, myocardial ischemia or infarction, atherosclerosis, and stroke. Results of preclinical studies proved prominent therapeutic potential of DPP4i in cardiovascular diseases, regardless the presence of diabetes. This review aims to present an updated summary of the cardiovascular protective and therapeutic effects of DPP4 inhibitors through the past 5 years focusing on the molecular mechanisms beneath these effects. Additionally, based on the results summary presented here, future studies may be conducted to elucidate or illustrate some of these findings which can add clinical benefits towards management of diabetic cardiovascular complications.
Subject(s)
Cardiovascular Diseases , Diabetes Complications , Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 , Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors , Cardiovascular Diseases/drug therapy , Cardiovascular Diseases/prevention & control , Diabetes Complications/drug therapy , Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/drug therapy , Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 , Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors/pharmacology , Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 , Glucose , Humans , Hypoglycemic Agents/pharmacology , Hypoglycemic Agents/therapeutic use , Incretins/therapeutic useABSTRACT
Exosomes (EXOs) were given attention as an extracellular vesicle (EV) with a pivotal pathophysiological role in the development of certain neurodegenerative disorders (NDD), such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease (AD). EXOs have shown the potential to carry pathological and therapeutic cargo; thus, researchers have harnessed EXOs in drug delivery applications. EXOs have shown low immunogenicity as natural drug delivery vehicles, thus ensuring efficient drug delivery without causing significant adverse reactions. Recently, EXOs provided potential drug delivery opportunities in AD and promising future clinical applications with the diagnosis of NDD and were studied for their usefulness in disease detection and prediction prior to the emergence of symptoms. In the future, the microfluidics technique will play an essential role in isolating and detecting EXOs to diagnose AD before the development of advanced symptoms. This review is not reiterative literature but will discuss why EXOs have strong potential in treating AD and how they can be used as a tool to predict and diagnose this disorder.
