Disulfide bond-dependent mechanism of protection against oxidative stress in pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase of anaerobic Desulfovibrio bacteria.

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate forming acetyl-coenzyme A is a crucial step in many metabolic pathways. In most anaerobes, this reaction is carried out by pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), an enzyme normally oxygen sensitive except in Desulfovibrio africanus (Da), where it shows an abnormally high oxygen stability. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we have specified a disulfide bond-dependent protective mechanism against oxidative conditions in Da PFOR. Our data demonstrated that the two cysteine residues forming the only disulfide bond in the as-isolated PFOR are crucial for the stability of the enzyme in oxidative conditions. A methionine residue located in the environment of the proximal [4Fe-4S] cluster was also found to be essential for this protective mechanism. In vivo analysis demonstrated unambiguously that PFOR in Da cells as well as two other Desulfovibrio species was efficiently protected against oxidative stress. Importantly, a less active but stable Da PFOR in oxidized cells rapidly reactivated when returned to anaerobic medium. Our work demonstrates the existence of an elegant disulfide bond-dependent reversible mechanism, found in the Desulfovibrio species to protect one of the key enzymes implicated in the central metabolism of these strict anaerobes. This new mechanism could be considered as an adaptation strategy used by sulfate-reducing bacteria to cope with temporary oxidative conditions and to maintain an active dormancy.

The electronic structure of the H-cluster in the [FeFe]-hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans: a Q-band 57Fe-ENDOR and HYSCORE study.

The active site of the (57)Fe-enriched [FeFe]-hydrogenase (i.e., the "H-cluster") from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans has been examined using advanced pulse EPR methods at X- and Q-band frequencies. For both the active oxidized state (H(ox)) and the CO inhibited form (H(ox)-CO) all six (57)Fe hyperfine couplings were detected. The analysis shows that the apparent spin density extends over the whole H-cluster. The investigations revealed different hyperfine couplings of all six (57)Fe nuclei in the H-cluster of the H(ox)-CO state. Four large 57Fe hyperfine couplings in the range 20-40 MHz were found (using pulse ENDOR and TRIPLE methods) and were assigned to the [4Fe-4S](H) (cubane) subcluster. Two weak (57)Fe hyperfine couplings below 5 MHz were identified using Q-band HYSCORE spectroscopy and were assigned to the [2Fe](H) subcluster. For the H(ox) state only two different 57Fe hyperfine couplings in the range 10-13 MHz were detected using pulse ENDOR. An (57)Fe line broadening analysis of the X-band CW EPR spectrum indicated, however, that all six (57)Fe nuclei in the H-cluster are contributing to the hyperfine pattern. It is concluded that in both states the binuclear subcluster [2Fe](H) assumes a [Fe(I)Fe(II)] redox configuration where the paramagnetic Fe(I) atom is attached to the [4Fe-4S](H) subcluster. The (57)Fe hyperfine interactions of the formally diamagnetic [4Fe-4S](H) are due to an exchange interaction between the two subclusters as has been discussed earlier by Popescu and Münck [Popescu, C.V.; Münck, E., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 7877-7884]. This exchange coupling is strongly enhanced by binding of the extrinsic CO ligand. Binding of the dihydrogen substrate may induce a similar effect, and it is therefore proposed that the observed modulation of the electronic structure by the changing ligand surrounding plays an important role in the catalytic mechanism of [FeFe]-hydrogenase.

Flexibility of thiamine diphosphate revealed by kinetic crystallographic studies of the reaction of pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase with pyruvate.

Pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductases (PFOR) are unique among thiamine pyrophosphate (ThDP)-containing enzymes in giving rise to a rather stable cofactor-based free-radical species upon the decarboxylation of their first substrate, pyruvate. We have obtained snapshots of unreacted and partially reacted (probably as a tetrahedral intermediate) pyruvate-PFOR complexes at different time intervals. We conclude that pyruvate decarboxylation involves very limited substrate-to-product movements but a significant displacement of the thiazolium moiety of ThDP. In this respect, PFOR seems to differ substantially from other ThDP-containing enzymes, such as transketolase and pyruvate decarboxylase. In addition, exposure of PFOR to oxygen in the presence of pyruvate results in significant inhibition of catalytic activity, both in solution and in the crystals. Examination of the crystal structure of inhibited PFOR suggests that the loss of activity results from oxime formation at the 4' amino substituent of the pyrimidine moiety of ThDP.

The active site of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. II. Redox properties, light sensitivity and CO-ligand exchange as observed by infrared spectroscopy.

In [FeFe]-hydrogenases, the H cluster (hydrogen-activating cluster) contains a di-iron centre ([2Fe]H subcluster, a (L)(CO)(CN)Fe(mu-RS2)(mu-CO)Fe(CysS)(CO)(CN) group) covalently attached to a cubane iron-sulphur cluster ([4Fe-4S]H subcluster). The Cys-thiol functions as the link between one iron (called Fe1) of the [2Fe]H subcluster and one iron of the cubane subcluster. The other iron in the [2Fe]H subcluster is called Fe2. The light sensitivity of the Desulfovibrio desulfuricans enzyme in a variety of states has been studied with infrared (IR) spectroscopy. The aerobic inactive enzyme (H(inact) state) and the CO-inhibited active form (H(ox)-CO state) were stable in light. Illumination of the H(ox) state led to a kind of cannibalization; in some enzyme molecules the H cluster was destroyed and the released CO was captured by the H clusters in other molecules to form the light-stable H(ox)-CO state. Illumination of active enzyme under 13CO resulted in the complete exchange of the two intrinsic COs bound to Fe2. At cryogenic temperatures, light induced the photodissociation of the extrinsic CO and the bridging CO of the enzyme in the H(ox)-CO state. Electrochemical redox titrations showed that the enzyme in the H(inact) state converts to the transition state (H(trans)) in a reversible one-electron redox step (E (m, pH 7) = -75 mV). IR spectra demonstrate that the added redox equivalent not only affects the [4Fe-4S]H subcluster, but also the di-iron centre. Enzyme in the H(trans) state reacts with extrinsic CO, which binds to Fe2. The H(trans) state converts irreversibly into the H(ox) state in a redox-dependent reaction most likely involving two electrons (E (m, pH 7) = -261 mV). These electrons do not end up on any of the six Fe atoms of the H cluster; the possible destiny of the two redox equivalents is discussed. An additional reversible one-electron redox reaction leads to the H(red) state (E (m, pH 7) = -354 mV), where both Fe atoms of the [2Fe]H subcluster have the same formal oxidation state. The possible oxidation states of Fe1 and Fe2 in the various enzyme states are discussed. Low redox potentials (below -500 mV) lead to destruction of the [2Fe]H subcluster.

The active site of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. I. Light sensitivity and magnetic hyperfine interactions as observed by electron paramagnetic resonance.

The hydrogen-activating cluster (H cluster) in [FeFe]-hydrogenases consists of two moieties. The [2Fe]H subcluster is a (L)(CO)(CN)Fe(mu-RS2)(mu-CO)Fe(CysS)(CO)(CN) centre. The Cys-bound Fe is called Fe1, the other iron Fe2. The Cys-thiol forms a bridge to a [4Fe-4S] cluster, the [4Fe-4S]H subcluster. We report that electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of the 57Fe-enriched enzyme from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans in the H(ox)-CO state are consistent with a magnetic hyperfine interaction of the unpaired spin with all six Fe atoms of the H cluster. In contrast to the inactive aerobic enzyme, the active enzyme is easily destroyed by light. The [2Fe]H subcluster in some enzyme molecules loses CO by photolysis, whereupon other molecules firmly bind the released CO to form the H(ox)-CO state giving rise to the so-called axial 2.06 EPR signal. Though not destroyed by light, the H(ox)-CO state is affected by it. As demonstrated in the accompanying paper [49] two of the intrinsic COs, both bound to Fe2, can be exchanged by extrinsic 13CO during illumination at 2 degrees C. We found that only one of the three 13COs, the one at the extrinsic position, gives an EPR-detectable isotropic superhyperfine interaction of 0.6 mT. At 30 K both the inhibiting extrinsic CO bound to Fe2 and one more CO can be photolysed. EPR spectra of the photolysed products are consistent with a 3d7 system of Fe with the formal oxidation state +1. The damaged enzyme shows a light-sensitive g = 5 signal which is ascribed to an S = 3/2 form of the [2Fe](H) subcluster. The light sensitivity of the enzyme explains the occurrence of the g = 5 signal and the axial 2.06 signal in published EPR spectra of nearly all preparations studied thus far.

Oriented immobilization of Desulfovibrio gigas hydrogenase onto carbon electrodes by covalent bonds for nonmediated oxidation of H2.

The orientation of hydrogenase bound covalently to a pyrolytic graphite edge electrode modified with a 4-aminophenyl monolayer can be modulated via electrostatic interactions during the immobilization step. At low ionic strength and when the amino groups of the electrode surface are mostly protonated, the hydrogenase is immobilized with the negatively charged region that surrounds its 4Fe4S cluster nearer to the protein surface facing the electrode. This allows direct electron transfer between the immobilized hydrogenase and the electrode, which is observed by the strong catalytic currents measured in the presence of the H2 substrate. Therefore, a very stable enzymatic electrode is produced that catalyzes nonmediated H2 oxidation.

The type I/type II cytochrome c3 complex: an electron transfer link in the hydrogen-sulfate reduction pathway.

In Desulfovibrio metabolism, periplasmic hydrogen oxidation is coupled to cytoplasmic sulfate reduction via transmembrane electron transfer complexes. Type II tetraheme cytochrome c3 (TpII-c3), nine-heme cytochrome c (9HcA) and 16-heme cytochrome c (HmcA) are periplasmic proteins associated to these membrane-bound redox complexes and exhibit analogous physiological function. Type I tetraheme cytochrome c3 (TpI-c3) is thought to act as a mediator for electron transfer from hydrogenase to these multihemic cytochromes. In the present work we have investigated Desulfovibrio africanus (Da) and Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough (DvH) TpI-c3/TpII-c3 complexes. Comparative kinetic experiments of Da TpI-c3 and TpII-c3 using electrochemistry confirm that TpI-c3 is much more efficient than TpII-c3 as an electron acceptor from hydrogenase (second order rate constant k = 9 x 10(8) M(-1) s(-1), K(m) = 0.5 microM as compared to k = 1.7 x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1), K(m) = 40 microM, for TpI-c3 and TpII-c3, respectively). The Da TpI-c3/TpII-c3 complex was characterized at low ionic strength by gel filtration, analytical ultracentrifugation and cross-linking experiments. The thermodynamic parameters were determined by isothermal calorimetry titrations. The formation of the complex is mainly driven by a positive entropy change (deltaS = 137(+/-7) J mol(-1) K(-1) and deltaH = 5.1(+/-1.3) kJ mol(-1)) and the value for the association constant is found to be (2.2(+/-0.5)) x 10(6) M(-1) at pH 5.5. Our thermodynamic results reveal that the net increase in enthalpy and entropy is dominantly produced by proton release in combination with water molecule exclusion. Electrostatic forces play an important role in stabilizing the complex between the two proteins, since no complex formation is detected at high ionic strength. The crystal structure of Da TpI-c3 has been solved at 1.5 angstroms resolution and structural models of the complex have been obtained by NMR and docking experiments. Similar experiments have been carried out on the DvH TpI-c3/TpII-c3 complex. In both complexes, heme IV of TpI-c3 faces heme I of TpII-c3 involving basic residues of TpI-c3 and acidic residues of TpII-c3. A secondary interacting site has been observed in the two complexes, involving heme II of Da TpII-c3 and heme III of DvH TpI-c3 giving rise to a TpI-c3/TpII-c3 molar ratio of 2:1 and 1:2 for Da and DvH complexes, respectively. The physiological significance of these alternative sites in multiheme cytochromes c is discussed.

Multiple orientations in a physiological complex: the pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase-ferredoxin system.

Ferredoxin I from Desulfovibrio africanus (Da FdI) is a small acidic [4Fe-4S] cluster protein that exchanges electrons with pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), a key enzyme in the energy metabolism of anaerobes. The thermodynamic properties and the electron transfer between PFOR and either native or mutated FdI have been investigated by microcalorimetry and steady-state kinetics, respectively. The association constant of the PFOR-FdI complex is 3.85 x 10(5) M(-1), and the binding affinity has been found to be highly sensitive to ionic strength, suggesting the involvement of electrostatic forces in formation of the complex. Surprisingly, the punctual or combined neutralizations of carboxylate residues surrounding the [4Fe-4S] cluster slightly affect the PFOR-FdI interaction. Furthermore, hydrophobic residues around the cluster do not seem to be crucial for the PFOR-FdI system activity; however, some of them play an important role in the stability of the FeS cluster. NMR restrained docking associated with site-directed mutagenesis studies suggested the presence of various interacting sites on Da FdI. The modification of additional acidic residues at the interacting interface, generating a FdI pentamutant, evidenced at least two distinct FdI binding sites facing the distal [4Fe-4S] cluster of the PFOR. We also used a set of various small acidic partners to investigate the specificity of PFOR toward redox partners. The remarkable flexibility of the PFOR-FdI system supports the idea that the specificity of the physiological complex has probably been "sacrificed" to improve the turnover rate and thus the efficiency of bacterial electron transfer.

FTIR spectroelectrochemical study of the activation and inactivation processes of [NiFe] hydrogenases: effects of solvent isotope replacement and site-directed mutagenesis.

The kinetics of the activation and anaerobic inactivation processes of Desulfovibrio gigas hydrogenase have been measured in D(2)O by FTIR spectroelectrochemistry. A primary kinetic solvent isotope effect was observed for the inactivation process but not for the activation step. The kinetics of these processes have been also measured after replacement of a glutamic residue placed near the active site of an analogous [NiFe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio fructosovorans. Its replacement by a glutamine affected greatly the kinetics of the inactivation process but only slightly the activation process. The interpretation of the experimental results is that the rate-limiting step for anaerobic inactivation is the formation from water of a micro-OH(-) bridge at the hydrogenase active site, and that Glu25 has a role in this step.

Spectroscopic and kinetic characterization of active site mutants of Desulfovibrio fructosovoransNi-Fe hydrogenase.

Site-directed mutagenesis of amino acid residues proximate to the active site of the Ni-Fe hydrogenase of Desulfovibrio fructosovorans has been done. The different mutants have been analyzed by FTIR spectroscopy and compared with wild type enzyme. The changes observed in the spectra confirm that hydrogen bonds between the CN(-) ligands of the active site's Fe atom and certain neighbor amino acid residues stabilize the active center within the protein matrix. However, kinetic analysis of the mutants indicates that none of the replaced residues have an important role in the catalytic mechanism of the hydrogenase.

Molecular dynamics study of Desulfovibrio africanus cytochrome c3 in oxidized and reduced forms.

A 5-ns molecular dynamics study of a tetraheme cytochrome in fully oxidized and reduced forms was performed using the CHARMM molecular modeling program, with explicit water molecules, Langevin dynamics thermalization, Particle Mesh Ewald long-range electrostatics, and quantum mechanical determination of heme partial charges. The simulations used, as starting points, crystallographic structures of the oxidized and reduced forms of the acidic cytochrome c(3) from Desulfovibrio africanus obtained at pH 5.6. In this paper we also report structures for the two forms obtained at pH 8. In contrast to previous cytochrome c(3) dynamics simulations, our model is stable. The simulation structures agree reasonably well with the crystallographic ones, but our models show higher flexibility and the water molecules are more labile. We have compared in detail the differences between the simulated and experimental structures of the two redox states and observe that the hydration structure is highly dependent on the redox state. We have also analyzed the interaction energy terms between the hemes, the protein residues, and water. The direct electrostatic interaction between hemes is weak and nearly insensitive to the redox state, but the remaining terms are large and contribute in a complex way to the overall potential energy differences that we see between the redox states.

IR spectroelectrochemical study of the binding of carbon monoxide to the active site of Desulfovibrio fructosovorans Ni-Fe hydrogenase.

The binding of carbon monoxide, a competitive inhibitor of many hydrogenases, to the active site of Desulfovibrio fructosovorans hydrogenase has been studied by infrared spectroscopy in a spectroelectrochemical cell. Direct evidence has been obtained of which redox states of the enzyme can bind extrinsic CO. Redox states A, B and SU do not bind extrinsic CO; only after reductive activation of the hydrogenase can CO bind to the active site. Two states with bound extrinsic CO can be distinguished by FTIR. These two states are in redox equilibrium and are most probably due to different oxidation states of the proximal 4Fe-4S cluster. Vibrational frequencies and theoretical quantum mechanics studies (DFT) of this process preclude the possibility of strong bonding of extrinsic CO to the Fe or Ni atoms of the active site. We propose that CO inhibition is caused by weak interaction of the extrinsic ligand with the Ni atom, blocking electron and proton transfer at the active site. A calculated structure with a weakly bound extrinsic CO at Ni has relative CO frequencies in excellent agreement with the experimental ones.