Age-related changes in B cell metabolism.

Antibody responses to vaccinations or infections decline upon aging. In this study we tested if metabolic changes in B cells may contribute to attenuation of responses to influenza vaccination in aged humans. Our data show that aging affects mitochondrial functions in B cells leading to increases in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (MROS) and mitochondrial mass (MM) in some aged B cell subsets and decreases in expression levels of Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), Forkhead box protein (FOX)O1 and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1). Seahorse analyses showed minor defects in glycolysis in the aged B cells after activation but a strong reduction in oxidative phosphorylation. The analyses of the transcriptome revealed further pronounced defects in one-carbon metabolism, a pathway that is essential for amino acid and nucleotide metabolism. Overall our data support the notion that the declining ability of aged B cells to increase their metabolism following activation contributes to the weakened antibody responses of the elderly.

Correlates of Protection Against SIVmac251 Infection in Rhesus Macaques Immunized With Chimpanzee-Derived Adenovirus Vectors.

We report on prime-boost vaccine regimens with two simian adenovirus (Ad) vectors (SAdV) or two human serotype Ad vectors (HAdV) expressing Gag and gp160 of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)mac239 tested in HAdV-seropositive rhesus macaques (RMs) repeatedly challenged rectally with low doses of SIVmac251. Both vaccine regimens reduced set point and peak viral loads (PVL) and accelerated viral clearance. In SAdV-vaccinated controller genotype RMs resistance against infection correlated with levels of envelope (Env)-specific antibody (Ab) titers. In both vaccine groups CD8+T cells controlled viral loads (VL) upon infection. Circulating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells showed significant changes in their transcriptome over time following vaccination, which differed between the vaccine groups. T cells from SIV-resistant RMs had unique transcriptional profiles indicating that both follicular T helper (TFH) cell responses and highly activated CD8+ T cells may play a role in protection.

The effect of timing of influenza vaccination and sample collection on antibody titers and responses in the aged.

Antibody responses, B cell subset distribution in blood and the blood transcriptome were analyzed in younger and aged human subjects before and after vaccination with the inactivated influenza vaccine. In the aged, but not the younger, individuals we saw a clear difference in antibody titers including those at baseline depending on the time of vaccination and sample collection. Differences in baseline titers in aged individuals treated in the morning or afternoon in turn affected responsiveness to the vaccine. In both younger and aged individuals, the time of sample collection also affected relative numbers of some of the B cell subsets in blood. A global gene expression analysis with whole blood samples from the aged showed small but statistically significant differences depending on the time of sample collection. Our data do not indicate that timing of vaccination affects immune responsiveness of the aged, but rather shows that in clinical influenza vaccine trials timing of collection of samples can have a major and potentially misleading influence on study outcome. In future vaccine trials, timing of vaccination and sample collection should be recorded carefully to allow for its use as a study covariant.

A Partial E3 Deletion in Replication-Defective Adenoviral Vectors Allows for Stable Expression of Potentially Toxic Transgene Products.

Adenovirus (Ad) is used extensively for construction of viral vectors, most commonly with deletion in its E1 and/or E3 genomic regions. Previously, our attempts to insert envelope proteins (Env) of HIV-1 into such vectors based on chimpanzee-derived Ad (AdC) viruses were thwarted. Here, we describe that genetic instability of an E1- and E3-deleted AdC vector of serotype C6 expressing Env of HIV-1 can be overcome by reinsertion of E3 sequences with anti-apoptotic activities. This partial E3 deletion presumably delays premature death of HEK-293 packaging cell lines due to Env-induced cell apoptosis. The same partial E3 deletion also allows for the generation of stable glycoprotein 140 (gp140)- and gp160-expressing Ad vectors based on AdC7, a distinct AdC serotype. Env-expressing AdC vectors containing the partial E3 deletion are genetically stable upon serial cell culture passaging, produce yields comparable to those of other AdC vectors, and induce transgene product-specific antibody responses in mice. A partial E3 deletion thereby allows expansion of the repertoire of transgenes that can be expressed by Ad vectors.

The effect of adenovirus-specific antibodies on adenoviral vector-induced, transgene product-specific T cell responses.

In this study, we tested the effect of neutralizing Abs to different serotypes of E1-deleted Ad vectors on the immunogenicity of the homologous Ad vector or a vector derived from a heterologous serotype. Our results showed that, as expected, even low titers of passively transferred neutralizing Abs significantly reduced the homologous vectors' ability to elicit transgene-specific CD8(+) T cell responses. In addition, Abs changed the fate of transgene product-specific CD8(+) T cells by promoting their transition into the central memory cell pool, which resulted in markedly enhanced expansion of transgene product-specific CD8(+) T cells after a boost with a heterologous Ad vector. Non-neutralizing Abs specific to a distinct Ad serotype had no effect on the magnitude of transgene product-specific CD8(+) T cells induced by a heterologous Ad vector, nor did such Abs promote induction of more resting memory CD8(+) T cells. These results show that Abs to an Ad vaccine carrier affect not only the magnitude but also the profile of a vector-induced CD8(+) T cell response.

Enhancement of recombinant adenovirus vaccine-induced primary but not secondary systemic and mucosal immune responses by all-trans retinoic acid.

Vaccination is an important tool for enhancing immune responses against mucosal pathogens. Intramuscularly administered adenovirus (Ad) vectors have been demonstrated to be strong inducers of both systemic and mucosal immune responses. Further enhancement of immune responses following Ad vaccination is highly desirable. All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), a biologically active vitamin A metabolite, has been explored as an adjuvant for primary immune responses following vaccination. In this study, we investigated the effect of ATRA on a heterologous Ad prime boost regimen. ATRA co-administration during priming increased mucosal and systemic antibody responses as well as mucosal but not systemic CD8(+) T cell responses. However, this effect was no longer apparent after boosting regardless of whether ATRA was administered at the time of priming, at the time of boosting, or at both immunizations. Our findings confirm ATRA as an adjuvant for primary immune responses and suggest that the adjuvant effect does not extend to secondary immune responses.

Correlates of relative resistance against low-dose rectal simian immunodeficiency virus challenges in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of vaccinated rhesus macaques.

In this study, we compared the immunogenicity and protection from repeated low-dose intrarectal SIVmac251 challenge in two groups of vaccinated RMs. Animals were immunized with live SIVmac239, which had been attenuated by a deletion of the nef sequence, or they were vaccinated twice with an E1-deleted AdHu5, expressing SIVmac239gag. The vaccinated animals and a cohort of unvaccinated control animals were then challenged 10 times in weekly intervals with low doses of SIVmac251 given rectally. Our results confirm previous studies showing that whereas SIVΔnef provides some degree of protection against viral acquisition after repeated low-dose rectal SIVmac251 challenges, vaccination with an AdHu5gag vaccine designed to induce only antiviral T cell responses is ineffective. As immunological analyses of prechallenge, vaccine-induced T and B cell responses failed to reveal correlates of protection that distinguished the more susceptible from the more resistant vaccinated animals, we carried out RNA-Seq studies of paired pre- and postvaccination samples to identify transcriptional patterns that correlated with the differences in response. We show that gene expression signatures associated with the delayed SIV infection seen in some AdHu5gag recipients were largely present in prevaccination samples of those animals. In contrast, the responding SIVΔnef-immunized animals showed a predominance of vaccine-induced changes, thus enabling us to define inherited and vaccine-induced gene expression signatures and their associated pathways that may play a role in preventing SIV acquisition.

Capsid-specific T-cell responses to natural infections with adeno-associated viruses in humans differ from those of nonhuman primates.

Hepatic adeno-associated virus serotype 2 (AAV2)-mediated gene transfer failed to achieve sustained transgene product expression in human subjects. We formulated the hypothesis that rejection of AAV-transduced hepatocytes is caused by AAV capsid-specific CD8(+) T cells that become reactivated upon gene transfer. Although this hypothesis was compatible with clinical data, which showed a rise in circulating AAV capsid-specific T cells following injection of AAV vectors, it did not explain that AAV vectors achieved long-term transgene expression in rhesus macaques, which are naturally infected with AAV serotypes closely related to those of humans. To address this apparent contradiction, we tested human and rhesus macaque samples for AAV capsid-specific T cells by intracellular cytokine staining combined with staining for T-cell subset and differentiation markers. This highly sensitive method, which could provide a tool to monitor adverse T-cell responses in gene transfer trials, showed that AAV capsid-specific CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells can be detected in blood of naturally infected humans and rhesus macaques. They are present at higher frequencies in rhesus macaques. Furthermore, T cells from humans and rhesus macaques exhibit striking differences in their differentiation status and in their functions, which may explain the disparate duration of AAV-mediated gene transfer in these two species.

Vaccine-induced T cells provide partial protection against high-dose rectal SIVmac239 challenge of rhesus macaques.

Despite enormous efforts by the scientific community, an effective HIV vaccine remains elusive. To further address to what degree T cells in absence of antibodies may protect against simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) disease progression, rhesus macaques were vaccinated intramuscularly with a chimpanzee-derived Ad vector (AdC) serotype 6 and then boosted intramuscularly with a serologically distinct AdC vector of serotype 7 both expressing Gag of SIVmac239. Animals were subsequently boosted intramuscularly with a modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) virus expressing Gag and Tat of the homologous SIV before mucosal challenge with a high dose of SIVmac239 given rectally. Whereas vaccinated animals showed only a modest reduction of viral loads, their overall survival was improved, in association with a substantial protection from the loss of CD4(+) T cells. In addition, the two vaccinated Mamu-A*01(+) macaques controlled viral loads to levels below detection within weeks after challenge. These data strongly suggest that T cells, while unable to affect SIV acquisition upon high-dose rectal infection, can reduce disease progression. Induction of potent T-cell responses should thus remain a component of our efforts to develop an efficacious vaccine to HIV-1.

Robust genital gag-specific CD8+ T-cell responses in mice upon intramuscular immunization with simian adenoviral vectors expressing HIV-1-gag.

Most studies on E1-deleted adenovirus (Ad) vectors as vaccine carriers for antigens of HIV-1 have focused on induction of central immune responses, although stimulation of mucosal immunity at the genital tract (GT), the primary port of entry of HIV-1, would also be highly desirable. In this study, different immunization protocols using chimpanzee-derived adenoviral (AdC) vectors expressing Gag of HIV-1 clade B given in heterologous prime-boost regimens were tested for induction of systemic and genital immune responses. Although i.n. immunization stimulated CD8(+) T-cell responses that could be detected in the GT, this route induced only marginal cellular responses in systemic tissues and furthermore numbers of Gag-specific CD8(+) T cells contracted sharply within a few weeks. On the contrary, i.m. immunization induced higher and more sustained frequencies of vaccine-induced cells which could be detected in the GT as well as systemic compartments. Antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells could be detected 1 year after immunization in all compartments analyzed. Genital memory cells secreted IFN-γ, expressed high levels of CD103 and their phenotypes were consistent with a state of activation. Taken together, the results presented here show that i.m. vaccination with chimpanzee-derived (simian) adenovirus vectors is a suitable strategy to induce a long-lived genital CD8(+) T-cell response.

Augmentation of primary influenza A virus-specific CD8+ T cell responses in aged mice through blockade of an immunoinhibitory pathway.

Immune responses diminish with age resulting in an increased susceptibility of the elderly to infectious agents and an inability to mount protective immune responses to vaccines. Immunosenescence affects multiple aspects of the immune system, including CD8(+) T cells, which control viral infections and are assumed to prevent the development of cancers. In this study, we tested if CD8(+) T cell responses in aged mice could be enhanced through a vaccine that concomitantly expresses Ag and a molecule that blocks an immunoinhibitory pathway. Specifically, we tested a vaccine based on a replication-defective chimpanzee-derived adenovirus vector expressing the nucleoprotein (NP) of influenza A virus as a fusion protein with the HSV type 1 glycoprotein D, which through binding to the herpes virus entry mediator, blocks the immunoinhibitory herpes virus entry mediator B and T lymphocyte attenuator/CD160 pathways. Our results show that the vaccine expressing a fusion protein of NP and glycoprotein D induces significantly higher NP-specific CD8(+) T cell responses in young and aged mice compared with the vaccine expressing NP only.

Adenovirus vector-induced immune responses in nonhuman primates: responses to prime boost regimens.

In the phase IIb STEP trial an HIV-1 vaccine based on adenovirus (Ad) vectors of the human serotype 5 (AdHu5) not only failed to induce protection but also increased susceptibility to HIV-1 infection in individuals with preexisting neutralizing Abs against AdHu5. The mechanisms underlying the increased HIV-1 acquisition rates have not yet been elucidated. Furthermore, it remains unclear if the lack of the vaccine's efficacy reflects a failure of the concept of T cell-mediated protection against HIV-1 or a product failure of the vaccine. Here, we compared two vaccine regimens based on sequential use of AdHu5 vectors or two different chimpanzee-derived Ad vectors in rhesus macaques that were AdHu5 seropositive or seronegative at the onset of vaccination. Our results show that heterologous booster immunizations with the chimpanzee-derived Ad vectors induced higher T and B cell responses than did repeated immunizations with the AdHu5 vector, especially in AdHu5-preexposed macaques.

Genital CD8+ T cell response to HIV-1 gag in mice immunized by mucosal routes with a recombinant simian adenovirus.

AdC6gag37, an E1-deleted adenovirus recombinant derived from the chimpanzee adenovirus serotype 6 expressing a codon-optimized truncated form of gag of HIV-1, was tested for induction of transgene-specific CD8+ T cell responses upon intranasal or intravaginal immunization of mice. Administration of AdC6gag37 induced gag-specific CD8+ T cells at systemic and mucosal sites. Frequencies of gag-specific CD8+ T cells elicited in the genital tract by intravaginal or intranasal immunizations were substantially increased by intranasal priming followed by intravaginal boosting with the same vector. Additionally, intravaginal immunization with AdC6gag37 increased the amount of gammadelta T cells that could be detected in genital tract.