Quantification of Methane Emissions from Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand Extraction in Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada.

Cold heavy oil production with sand (CHOPS) is an extraction process for heavy oil in Canada, with the potential to lead to higher CH4 venting than conventional oil sites, that have not been adequately characterized. In order to quantify CH4 emissions from CHOPS activities, a focused aerial measurement campaign was conducted in the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in June 2018. Total CH4 emissions from each of 10 clusters of CHOPS wells (containing 22-167 well sites per cluster) were derived using a mass balance computation algorithm that uses in situ wind data measurement on board aircraft. Results show that there is no statistically significant difference in CH4 emissions from CHOPS wells between the two provinces. Cluster-aggregated emission factors (EF) were determined using correspondingly aggregated production volumes. The average CH4 EF was 70.4 ± 36.9 kg/m3 produced oil for the Alberta wells and 55.1 ± 13.7 kg/m3 produced oil for the Saskatchewan wells. Using these EF and heavy oil production volumes reported to provincial regulators, the annual CH4 emissions from CHOPS were estimated to be 121% larger than CHOPS emissions extracted from Canada's National Inventory Report (NIR) for Saskatchewan. The EF were found to be positively correlated with the percentage of nonpiped production volumes in each cluster, indicating higher emissions for nonpiped wells while suggesting an avenue for methane emission reductions. A comparison with recent measurements indicates relatively limited effectiveness of regulations for Saskatchewan compared to those in Alberta. The results of this study indicate the substantial contribution of CHOPS operations to the underreporting observed in the NIR and provide measurement-based EF that can be used to develop improved emissions inventories for this sector and mitigate CH4 emissions from CHOPS operations.

Total organic carbon measurements reveal major gaps in petrochemical emissions reporting.

Anthropogenic organic carbon emissions reporting has been largely limited to subsets of chemically speciated volatile organic compounds. However, new aircraft-based measurements revealed total gas-phase organic carbon emissions that exceed oil sands industry-reported values by 1900% to over 6300%, the bulk of which was due to unaccounted-for intermediate-volatility and semivolatile organic compounds. Measured facility-wide emissions represented approximately 1% of extracted petroleum, resulting in total organic carbon emissions equivalent to that from all other sources across Canada combined. These real-world observations demonstrate total organic carbon measurements as a means of detecting unknown or underreported carbon emissions regardless of chemical features. Because reporting gaps may include hazardous, reactive, or secondary air pollutants, fully constraining the impact of anthropogenic emissions necessitates routine, comprehensive total organic carbon monitoring as an inherent check on mass closure.

Aircraft and satellite observations reveal historical gap between top-down and bottom-up CO2 emissions from Canadian oil sands.

Measurement-based estimates of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from complex industrial operations are challenging to obtain, but serve as an important, independent check on inventory-reported emissions. Such top-down estimates, while important for oil and gas (O&G) emissions globally, are particularly relevant for Canadian oil sands (OS) operations, which represent the largest O&G contributor to national GHG emissions. We present a multifaceted top-down approach for estimating CO2 emissions that combines aircraft-measured CO2/NOx emission ratios (ERs) with inventory and satellite-derived NOx emissions from Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) and TROPOspheric Ozone Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) and apply it to the Athabasca Oil Sands Region (AOSR) in Alberta, Canada. Historical CO2 emissions were reconstructed for the surface mining region, and average top-down estimates were found to be >65% higher than facility-reported, bottom-up estimates from 2005 to 2020. Higher top-down vs. bottom-up emissions estimates were also consistently obtained for individual surface mining and in situ extraction facilities, which represent a growing category of energy-intensive OS operations. Although the magnitudes of the measured discrepancies vary between facilities, they combine such that the observed reporting gap for total AOSR emissions is ≥(31 ± 8) Mt for each of the last 3 years (2018-2020). This potential underestimation is large and broadly highlights the importance of continued review and refinement of bottom-up estimation methodologies and inventories. The ER method herein offers a powerful approach for upscaling measured facility-level or regional fossil fuel CO2 emissions by taking advantage of satellite remote sensing observations.

A newly developed Lagrangian chemical transport scheme: Part 1. Simulation of a boreal forest fire plume.

Forest fire research over the last several decades has improved the understanding of fire emissions and impacts. Nevertheless, the evolution of forest fire plumes remains poorly quantified and understood. Here, a Lagrangian chemical transport model, the Forward Atmospheric Stochastic Transport model coupled with the Master Chemical Mechanism (FAST-MCM), has been developed to simulate the transport and chemical transformations of plumes from a boreal forest fire over several hours since their emission. The model results for NOx (NO and NO2), O3, HONO, HNO3, pNO3 and 70 VOC species are compared with airborne in-situ measurements within plume centers and their surrounding portions during the transport. Comparisons between simulation results and measurements show that the FAST-MCM model can properly reproduce the physical and chemical evolution of forest fire plumes. The results indicate that the model can be an important tool used to aid the understanding of the downwind impacts of forest fire plumes.

A decadal synthesis of atmospheric emissions, ambient air quality, and deposition in the oil sands region.

This review is part of a series synthesizing peer-reviewed literature from the past decade on environmental monitoring in the oil sands region (OSR) of northeastern Alberta. It focuses on atmospheric emissions, air quality, and deposition in and downwind of the OSR. Most published monitoring and research activities were concentrated in the surface-mineable region in the Athabasca OSR. Substantial progress has been made in understanding oil sands (OS)-related emission sources using multiple approaches: airborne measurements, satellite measurements, source emission testing, deterministic modeling, and source apportionment modeling. These approaches generally yield consistent results, indicating OS-related sources are regional contributors to nearly all air pollutants. Most pollutants exhibit enhanced air concentrations within ~20 km of surface-mining activities, with some enhanced >100 km downwind. Some pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides) undergo transformations as they are transported through the atmosphere. Deposition rates of OS-related substances primarily emitted as fugitive dust are enhanced within ~30 km of surface-mining activities, whereas gaseous and fine particulate emissions have a more diffuse deposition enhancement pattern extending hundreds of kilometers downwind. In general, air quality guidelines are not exceeded, although these single-pollutant thresholds are not comprehensive indicators of air quality. Odor events have occurred in communities near OS industrial activities, although it can be difficult to attribute events to specific pollutants or sources. Nitrogen, sulfur, polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs), and base cations from OS sources occur in the environment, but explicit and deleterious responses of organisms to these pollutants are not as apparent across all study environments; details of biological monitoring are discussed further in other papers in this special series. However, modeling of critical load exceedances suggests that, at continued emission levels, ecological change may occur in future. Knowledge gaps and recommendations for future work to address these gaps are also presented. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;18:333-360. © 2021 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Novel Analysis to Quantify Plume Crosswind Heterogeneity Applied to Biomass Burning Smoke.

We present a novel method, the Gaussian observational model for edge to center heterogeneity (GOMECH), to quantify the horizontal chemical structure of plumes. GOMECH fits observations of short-lived emissions or products against a long-lived tracer (e.g., CO) to provide relative metrics for the plume width (wi/wCO) and center (bi/wCO). To validate GOMECH, we investigate OH and NO3 oxidation processes in smoke plumes sampled during FIREX-AQ (Fire Influence on Regional to Global Environments and Air Quality, a 2019 wildfire smoke study). An analysis of 430 crosswind transects demonstrates that nitrous acid (HONO), a primary source of OH, is narrower than CO (wHONO/wCO = 0.73-0.84 ± 0.01) and maleic anhydride (an OH oxidation product) is enhanced on plume edges (wmaleicanhydride/wCO = 1.06-1.12 ± 0.01). By contrast, NO3 production [P(NO3)] occurs mainly at the plume center (wP(NO3)/wCO = 0.91-1.00 ± 0.01). Phenolic emissions, highly reactive to OH and NO3, are narrower than CO (wphenol/wCO = 0.96 ± 0.03, wcatechol/wCO = 0.91 ± 0.01, and wmethylcatechol/wCO = 0.84 ± 0.01), suggesting that plume edge phenolic losses are the greatest. Yet, nitrophenolic aerosol, their oxidation product, is the greatest at the plume center (wnitrophenolicaerosol/wCO = 0.95 ± 0.02). In a large plume case study, GOMECH suggests that nitrocatechol aerosol is most associated with P(NO3). Last, we corroborate GOMECH with a large eddy simulation model which suggests most (55%) of nitrocatechol is produced through NO3 in our case study.

Innate Resistance and Phosphite Treatment Affect Both the Pathogen's and Host's Transcriptomes in the Tanoak-Phytophthora ramorum Pathosystem.

Phosphites have been used to control Sudden Oak Death; however, their precise mode of action is not fully understood. To study the mechanism of action of phosphites, we conducted an inoculation experiment on two open-pollinated tanoak families, previously found to be partially resistant. Stems of treatment group individuals were sprayed with phosphite, and seven days later, distal leaves were inoculated with the Sudden Oak Death pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. Leaves from treated and untreated control plants were harvested before and seven days after inoculation, and transcriptomes of both host and pathogen were analyzed. We found that tanoak families differed in the presence of innate resistance (resistance displayed by untreated tanoak) and in the response to phosphite treatment. A set of expressed genes associated with innate resistance was found to overlap with an expressed gene set for phosphite-induced resistance. This observation may indicate that phosphite treatment increases the resistance of susceptible host plants. In addition, genes of the pathogen involved in detoxification were upregulated in phosphite-treated plants compared to phosphite-untreated plants. In summary, our RNA-Seq analysis supports a two-fold mode of action of phosphites, including a direct toxic effect on P. ramorum and an indirect enhancement of resistance in the tanoak host.

Evolution of morphological but not aggressiveness-related traits following a major resistance breakdown in the poplar rust fungus, Melampsora larici-populina.

Crop varieties carrying qualitative resistance to targeted pathogens lead to strong selection pressure on parasites, often resulting in resistance breakdown. It is well known that qualitative resistance breakdowns modify pathogen population structure but few studies have analyzed the consequences on their quantitative aggressiveness-related traits. The aim of this study was to characterize the evolution of these traits following a resistance breakdown in the poplar rust fungus, Melampsora larici-populina. We based our experiment on three temporal populations sampled just before the breakdown event, immediately after and four years later. First, we quantified phenotypic differences among populations for a set of aggressiveness traits on a universally susceptible cultivar (infection efficiency, latent period, lesion size, mycelium quantity, and sporulation rate) and one morphological trait (mean spore volume). Then, we estimated heritability to establish which traits could be subjected to adaptive evolution and tested for evidence of selection. Our results revealed significant changes in the morphological trait but no variation in aggressiveness traits. By contrast, recent works have demonstrated that quantitative resistance (initially assumed more durable) could be eroded and lead to increased aggressiveness. Hence, this study is one example suggesting that the use of qualitative resistance may be revealed to be less detrimental to long-term sustainable crop production.

Improving Insights on Air Pollutant Mixtures and Their Origins by Enhancing Local Monitoring in an Area of Intensive Resource Development.

An "event-based" approach to characterize complex air pollutant mixtures was applied in the Oil Sands region of northern Alberta, Canada. This approach was developed to better-inform source characterization and attribution of the air pollution in the Indigenous community of Fort McKay, within the context of the lived experience of residents. Principal component analysis was used to identify the characteristics of primary pollutant mixtures, which were related to hydrocarbon emissions, fossil fuel combustion, dust, and oxidized and reduced sulfur compounds. Concentration distributions of indicator compounds were used to isolate sustained air pollution "events". Diesel-powered vehicles operating in the mines were found to be an important source during NOx events. Industry-specific volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles were used in a chemical mass balance model for source apportionment, which revealed that nearby oil sands operations contribute to 86% of the total mass of nine VOC species (2-methylpentane, hexane, heptane, octane, benzene, toluene, m,p-xylene, o-xylene, and ethylbenzene) during VOC events. Analyses of the frequency distribution of air pollution events indicate that Fort McKay is regularly impacted by multiple mixtures simultaneously, underscoring the limitations of an exceedance-based approach relying on a small number of air quality standards as the only tool to assess risk.

Chlamydia trachomatis glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase: Enzyme kinetics, high-resolution crystal structure, and plasminogen binding.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an evolutionarily conserved essential enzyme in the glycolytic pathway. GAPDH is also involved in a wide spectrum of non-catalytic cellular 'moonlighting' functions. Bacterial surface-associated GAPDHs engage in many host interactions that aid in colonization, pathogenesis, and virulence. We have structurally and functionally characterized the recombinant GAPDH of the obligate intracellular bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis, the leading cause of sexually transmitted bacterial and ocular infections. Contrary to earlier speculations, recent data confirm the presence of glucose-catabolizing enzymes including GAPDH in both stages of the biphasic life cycle of the bacterium. The high-resolution crystal structure described here provides a close-up view of the enzyme's active site and surface topology and reveals two chemically modified cysteine residues. Moreover, we show for the first time that purified C. trachomatis GAPDH binds to human plasminogen and plasmin. Based on the versatility of GAPDH's functions, data presented here emphasize the need for investigating the Chlamydiae GAPDH's involvement in biological functions beyond energy metabolism.

A simple and reliable method for determination of optimum pH in coupled enzyme assays.

Determination of the optimum pH in a coupled enzyme assay poses significant challenges because altering the pH of the reaction mixture can affect the performance of both enzymes. Here, we demonstrate a simple and reliable method to determine the pH optimum for pyruvate kinase using the pyruvate kinase/lactate dehydrogenase coupled enzyme assay. This simple and reliable method can be broadly adapted to determine the pH optimum for various enzymes that are assayed using a coupled enzyme assay.

An overview of structure, function, and regulation of pyruvate kinases.

In the last step of glycolysis Pyruvate kinase catalyzes the irreversible conversion of ADP and phosphoenolpyruvate to ATP and pyruvic acid, both crucial for cellular metabolism. Thus pyruvate kinase plays a key role in controlling the metabolic flux and ATP production. The hallmark of the activity of different pyruvate kinases is their tight modulation by a variety of mechanisms including the use of a large number of physiological allosteric effectors in addition to their homotropic regulation by phosphoenolpyruvate. Binding of effectors signals precise and orchestrated movements in selected areas of the protein structure that alter the catalytic action of these evolutionarily conserved enzymes with remarkably conserved architecture and sequences. While the diverse nature of the allosteric effectors has been discussed in the literature, the structural basis of their regulatory effects is still not well understood because of the lack of data representing conformations in various activation states. Results of recent studies on pyruvate kinases of different families suggest that members of evolutionarily related families follow somewhat conserved allosteric strategies but evolutionarily distant members adopt different strategies. Here we review the structure and allosteric properties of pyruvate kinases of different families for which structural data are available.

Measured Canadian oil sands CO2 emissions are higher than estimates made using internationally recommended methods.

The oil and gas (O&G) sector represents a large source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally. However, estimates of O&G emissions rely upon bottom-up approaches, and are rarely evaluated through atmospheric measurements. Here, we use aircraft measurements over the Canadian oil sands (OS) to derive the first top-down, measurement-based determination of the their annual CO2 emissions and intensities. The results indicate that CO2 emission intensities for OS facilities are 13-123% larger than those estimated using publically available data. This leads to 64% higher annual GHG emissions from surface mining operations, and 30% higher overall OS GHG emissions (17 Mt) compared to that reported by industry, despite emissions reporting which uses the most up to date and recommended bottom-up approaches. Given the similarity in bottom-up reporting methods across the entire O&G sector, these results suggest that O&G CO2 emissions inventory data may be more uncertain than previously considered.

High resolution mapping of nitrogen dioxide with TROPOMI: First results and validation over the Canadian oil sands.

TROPOMI, on-board the Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite is a nadir-viewing spectrometer measuring reflected sunlight in the ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared spectral range. From these spectra several important air quality and climate-related atmospheric constituents are retrieved at an unprecedented high spatial resolution, including nitrogen dioxide (NO2). We present the first retrievals of TROPOMI NO2 over the Canadian Oil Sands, contrasting them with observations from the OMI satellite instrument, and demonstrate its ability to resolve individual plumes and highlight its potential for deriving emissions from individual mining facilities. Further, the first TROPOMI NO2 validation is presented, consisting of aircraft and surface in-situ NO2 observations, as well as ground-based remote-sensing measurements between March and May 2018. Our comparisons show that the TROPOMI NO2 vertical column densities are highly correlated with the aircraft and surface in-situ NO2 observations, and the ground-based remote-sensing measurements with a low bias (15-30 %) over the Canadian Oil Sands. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a pollutant that is linked to respiratory health issues and has negative environmental impacts such as soil and water acidification. Near the surface the most significant sources of NO2 are fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning. With a recently launched satellite instrument (TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument; TROPOMI) NO2 can be measured with an unprecedented combination of accuracy, spatial coverage, and resolution. This work presents the first TROPOMI NO2 measurements near the Canadian Oil Sands and shows that these measurements have an outstanding ability to detect NO2 on a very high horizontal resolution that is unprecedented for satellite NO2 observations. Further, these satellite measurements are in excellent agreement with aircraft and ground-based measurements.

Promise and Pitfalls of Endemic Resistance for Cultural Resources Threatened by Phytophthora ramorum.

Invasive forest pathogens can harm cultural, economic, and ecological resources. Here, we demonstrate the potential of endemic tree pathogen resistance in forest disease management using Phytophthora ramorum, cause of sudden oak death, in the context of management of tanoak (Notholithocarpus densiflorus), an ecologically unique and highly valued tree within Native American communities of northern California and southern Oregon in the United States. We surveyed resistance to P. ramorum on the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and Yurok Indian Reservation in a set of study sites with variable management intensities. Variation in resistance was found at all sites with similar mean and variation across stands, and resistance tended to have a random spatial distribution within stands but was not associated with previous stand management (thinning or prescribed fire) or structural characteristics such as tree density, basal area, or pairwise relatedness among study trees. These results did not suggest host, genetic, management, or environment interactions that could be easily leveraged into treatments to increase the prevalence of resistant trees. We applied epidemiological models to assess the potential application of endemic resistance in this system and to examine our assumption that in planta differences in lesion size-our measure of resistance-reflect linkages between mortality and transmission (resistance) versus reduced mortality with no change in transmission (tolerance). This assumption strongly influenced infection dynamics but changes in host populations-our conservation focus-was dependent on community-level variation in transmission. For P. ramorum, slowing mortality rates (whether by resistance or tolerance) conserves host resources when a second source of inoculum is present; these results are likely generalizable to pathogens with a broader host range. However, when the focal host is the sole source of inoculum, increasing tolerant individuals led to the greatest stand-level pathogen accumulation in our model. When seeking to use variation in mortality rates to affect conservation strategies, it is important to understand how these traits are linked with transmission because tolerance will be more useful for management in mixed-host stands that are already invaded, compared with single-host stands with low or no pathogen presence, where resistance will have the greatest conservation benefits.

Active Learning in Flipped Life Science Courses Promotes Development of Critical Thinking Skills.

Although development of critical thinking skills has emerged as an important issue in undergraduate education, implementation of pedagogies targeting these skills across different science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines has proved challenging. Our goal was to assess the impact of targeted interventions in 1) an introductory cell and molecular biology course, 2) an intermediate-level evolutionary ecology course, and 3) an upper-level biochemistry course. Each instructor used Web-based videos to flip some aspect of the course in order to implement active-learning exercises during class meetings. Activities included process-oriented guided-inquiry learning, model building, case studies, clicker-based think-pair-share strategies, and targeted critical thinking exercises. The proportion of time spent in active-learning activities relative to lecture varied among the courses, with increased active learning in intermediate/upper-level courses. Critical thinking was assessed via a pre/posttest design using the Critical Thinking Assessment Test. Students also assessed their own learning through a self-reported survey. Students in flipped courses exhibited gains in critical thinking, with the largest objective gains in intermediate and upper-level courses. Results from this study suggest that implementing active-learning strategies in the flipped classroom may benefit critical thinking and provide initial evidence suggesting that underrepresented and first-year students may experience a greater benefit.

Quantifying the Primary Emissions and Photochemical Formation of Isocyanic Acid Downwind of Oil Sands Operations.

Isocyanic acid (HNCO) is a known toxic species and yet the relative importance of primary and secondary sources to regional HNCO and population exposure remains unclear. Off-road diesel fuel combustion has previously been suggested to be an important regional source of HNCO, which implies that major industrial facilities such as the oil sands (OS), which consume large quantities of diesel fuel, can be sources of HNCO. The OS emissions of nontraditional toxic species such as HNCO have not been assessed. Here, airborne measurements of HNCO were used to estimate primary and secondary HNCO for the oil sands. Approximately 6.2 ± 1.1 kg hr-1 was emitted from off-road diesel activities within oil sands facilities, and an additional 116-186 kg hr-1 formed from the photochemical oxidation of diesel exhaust. Together, the primary and secondary HNCO from OS operations represent a significant anthropogenic HNCO source in Canada. The secondary HNCO downwind of the OS was enhanced by up to a factor of 20 relative to its primary emission, an enhancement factor significantly greater than previously estimated from laboratory studies. Incorporating HNCO emissions and formation into a regional model demonstrated that the HNCO levels in Fort McMurray (∼10-70 km downwind of the OS) are controlled by OS emissions; > 50% of the monthly mean HNCO arose from the OS. While the mean HNCO levels in Fort McMurray are predicted to be below the 1000 pptv level associated with potential negative health impacts, (∼25 pptv in August-September), an order of magnitude increase in concentration is predicted (250-600 pptv) when the town is directly impacted by OS plumes. The results here highlight the importance of obtaining at-source HNCO emission factors and advancing the understanding of secondary HNCO formation mechanisms, to assess and improve HNCO population exposure predictions.

The effects of biodiesels on semivolatile and nonvolatile particulate matter emissions from a light-duty diesel engine.

Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) represent a dominant category of secondary organic aerosol precursors that are increasingly included in air quality models. In the present study, an experimental system was developed and applied to a light-duty diesel engine to determine the emission factors of particulate SVOCs (pSVOCs) and nonvolatile particulate matter (PM) components at dilution ratios representative of ambient conditions. The engine was tested under three steady-state operation modes, using ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD), three types of pure biodiesels and their blends with ULSD. For ULSD, the contribution of pSVOCs to total particulate organic matter (POM) mass in the engine exhaust ranged between 21 and 85%. Evaporation of pSVOCs from the diesel particles during dilution led to decreases in the hydrogen to carbon ratio of POM and the PM number emission factor of the particles. Substituting biodiesels for ULSD could increase pSVOCs emissions but brought on large reductions in black carbon (BC) emissions. Among the biodiesels tested, tallow/used cooking oil (UCO) biodiesel showed advantages over soybean and canola biodiesels in terms of both pSVOCs and nonvolatile PM emissions. It is noteworthy that PM properties, such as particle size and BC mass fraction, differed substantially between emissions from conventional diesel and biodiesels.

Differences between measured and reported volatile organic compound emissions from oil sands facilities in Alberta, Canada.

Large-scale oil production from oil sands deposits in Alberta, Canada has raised concerns about environmental impacts, such as the magnitude of air pollution emissions. This paper reports compound emission rates (E) for 69-89 nonbiogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for each of four surface mining facilities, determined with a top-down approach using aircraft measurements in the summer of 2013. The aggregate emission rate (aE) of the nonbiogenic VOCs ranged from 50 ± 14 to 70 ± 22 t/d depending on the facility. In comparison, equivalent VOC emission rates reported to the Canadian National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) using accepted estimation methods were lower than the aE values by factors of 2.0 ± 0.6, 3.1 ± 1.1, 4.5 ± 1.5, and 4.1 ± 1.6 for the four facilities, indicating underestimation in the reported VOC emissions. For 11 of the combined 93 VOC species reported by all four facilities, the reported emission rate and E were similar; but for the other 82 species, the reported emission rate was lower than E The median ratio of E to that reported for all species by a facility ranged from 4.5 to 375 depending on the facility. Moreover, between 9 and 53 VOCs, for which there are existing reporting requirements to the NPRI, were not included in the facility emission reports. The comparisons between the emission reports and measurement-based emission rates indicate that improvements to VOC emission estimation methods would enhance the accuracy and completeness of emission estimates and their applicability to environmental impact assessments of oil sands developments.