The Biomechanical Role of the Deltoid Ligament on Ankle Stability: Injury, Repair, and Augmentation.

BACKGROUND: Deltoid ligament injuries occur in isolation as well as with ankle fractures and other ligament injuries. Both operative treatment and nonoperative treatment are used, but debate on optimal treatment continues. Likewise, the best method of surgical repair of the deltoid ligament remains unclear. PURPOSE: To determine the biomechanical role of native anterior and posterior components of the deltoid ligament in ankle stability and to determine the efficacy of simple suture versus augmented repair. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Ten cadaveric ankles (mean age, 51 years; age range, 34-64 years; all male specimens) were mounted on a 6 degrees of freedom robotic arm. Each specimen underwent biomechanical testing in 8 states: (1) intact, (2) anterior deltoid cut, (3) anterior repair, (4) tibiocalcaneal augmentation, (5) deep anterior tibiotalar augmentation, (6) posterior deltoid cut, (7) posterior repair, and (8) complete deltoid cut. Testing consisted of anterior drawer, eversion, and external rotation (ER), each performed at neutral and 25° of plantarflexion. A 1-factor, random-intercepts, linear mixed-effect model was created, and all pairwise comparisons were made between testing states. RESULTS: Cutting the anterior deltoid introduced ER (+2.1°; P = .009) and eversion laxity (+6.2° of eversion; P < .001) at 25 degrees of plantarflexion. Anterior deltoid repair restored native ER but not eversion. Tibiocalcaneal augmentation reduced eversion laxity, but tibiotalar augmentation provided no additional benefit. The posterior deltoid tear showed no increase in laxity. Complete tear introduced significant anterior translation, ER, and eversion laxity (+7.6 mm of anterior translation, +13.8° ER and +33.6° of eversion; P < .001). CONCLUSION: A complete deltoid tear caused severe instability of the ankle joint. Augmented anterior repair was sufficient to stabilize the complete tear, and no additional benefit was provided by posterior repair. For isolated anterior tear, repair with tibiocalcaneal augmentation was the optimal treatment. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Deltoid repair with augmentation may reduce or avoid the need for prolonged postoperative immobilization and encourage accelerated rehabilitation, preventing stiffness and promoting earlier return to preinjury activity.

Outcomes Following Repair of Achilles Midsubstance Tears: Percutaneous Knotless Repair vs Open Repair.

BACKGROUND: Optimum treatment for acute Achilles tendon rupture results in high mechanical strength, low risk of complications, and return to preinjury activity level. Percutaneous knotless repair is a minimally invasive technique with promising results in biomechanical studies, but few comparison clinical studies exist. Our study purpose was to compare functional outcomes and revision rates following acute Achilles tendon rupture treated between percutaneous knotless repair and open repair techniques. METHODS: Patients 18 years or older with an acute Achilles tendon rupture, treated by a single surgeon with either open repair or percutaneous knotless repair, and more than 2 years after surgery were assessed for eligibility. Prospective clinical data were obtained from the data registry and standard electronic medical record. Additionally, the patients were contacted to obtain current follow-up questionnaires. Primary outcome measure was Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM) activities of daily living (ADL). Secondary outcome measures were FAAM sports, 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), Tegner activity scale, patient satisfaction with outcome, complications, and revisions. Postoperative follow-up closest to 5 years was used in this study. RESULTS: In total, 61 patients were included in the study. Twenty-four of 29 patients (83%) in the open repair group and 28 of 32 patients (88%) in the percutaneous knotless repair group completed the questionnaires with average follow-up of 5.8 years and 4.2 years, respectively. We found no significant differences in patient-reported outcomes or patient satisfaction between groups (FAAM ADL: 99 vs 99 points, P = .99). Operative time was slightly longer in the percutaneous knotless repair group (46 vs 52 minutes, P = .02). Two patients in the open group required revision surgery compared to no patients in the percutaneous group. CONCLUSION: In our study, we did not find significant differences in patient-reported outcomes or patient satisfaction by treating Achilles tendon midsubstance ruptures with percutaneous knotless vs open repair. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IlI, retrospective cohort study.

Broström Repair With and Without Augmentation: Comparison of Outcomes at Median Follow-up of 5 Years.

BACKGROUND: An augmented Broström repair with nonabsorbable suture tape has demonstrated strength and stiffness more similar to the native anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) compared to Broström repair alone at the time of repair in cadaveric models for the treatment of lateral ankle instability. The study purpose was to compare minimum 2-year patient-reported outcomes (PROs) following treatment of ATFL injuries with Broström repair with vs without suture tape augmentation. METHODS: Between 2009 and 2018, patients >18 years old who underwent primary surgical treatment for an ATFL injury with either a Broström repair alone (BR Cohort) or Broström repair with suture tape augmentation (BR-ST Cohort) were identified. Demographic data and PROs, including Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM) with activities of daily living (ADL) and sport subscales, 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), Tegner Activity Scale, and patient satisfaction with surgical outcome, were compared between groups, and proportional odds ordinal logistic regression was used. RESULTS: Ninety-one of 102 eligible patients were available for follow-up at median 5 years. The BR cohort had 50 of 53 patients (94%) completed follow-up at a median of 7 years. The BR-ST cohort had 41 of 49 (84%) complete follow-up at a median of 5 years. There was no significant difference in median postoperative FAAM ADL (98% vs 98%, P = .67), FAAM sport (88% vs 91%, P = .43), SF-12 PCS (55 vs 54, P = .93), Tegner score (5 vs 5, P = .64), or patient satisfaction (9 vs 9, P = .82). There was significantly higher SF-12 MCS (55.7 vs 57.6, P = .02) in the BR-ST group. Eight patients underwent subsequent ipsilateral ankle surgery, of which one patient (BR-ST group) was revised for recurrent lateral ankle instability. CONCLUSION: At median 5 years, patients treated for ATFL injury of the lateral ankle with Broström repair with suture tape augmentation demonstrated similar patient-reported outcomes to those treated with Broström repair alone. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, retrospective cohort study.

Effect of Posterior Malleolar Fixation on Syndesmotic Stability.

BACKGROUND: Transsyndesmotic fixation with suture buttons (SBs), posterior malleolar fixation with screws, and anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (AITFL) augmentation using suture tape (ST) have all been suggested as potential treatments in the setting of a posterior malleolar fracture (PMF). However, there is no consensus on the optimal treatment for PMFs. PURPOSE: To determine which combination of (1) transsyndesmotic SBs, (2) posterior malleolar screws, and (3) AITFL augmentation using ST best restored native tibiofibular and ankle joint kinematics after 25% and 50% PMF. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Twenty cadaveric lower-leg specimens were divided into 2 groups (25% or 50% PMF) and underwent biomechanical testing using a 6 degrees of freedom robotic arm in 7 states: intact, syndesmosis injury with PMF, transsyndesmotic SBs, transsyndesmotic SBs + AITFL augmentation, transsyndesmotic SBs + AITFL augmentation + posterior malleolar screws, posterior malleolar screws + AITFL augmentation, and posterior malleolar screws. Four biomechanical tests were performed at neutral and 30° of plantarflexion: external rotation, internal rotation, posterior drawer, and lateral drawer. The position of the tibia, fibula, and talus were recorded using a 5-camera motion capture system. RESULTS: With external rotation, posterior malleolar screws with AITFL augmentation resulted in best stability of the fibula and ankle joint. With internal rotation, all repairs that included posterior malleolar screws stabilized the fibula and ankle joint. Posterior and lateral drawer resulted in only small differences between the intact and injured states. No differences were found in the efficacy of treatments between 25% and 50% PMFs. CONCLUSION: Posterior malleolar screws resulted in higher syndesmotic stability when compared with transsyndesmotic SBs. AITFL augmentation provided additional external rotational stability when combined with posterior malleolar screws. Transsyndesmotic SBs did not provide any additional stability and tended to translate the fibula medially. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Posterior malleolar fixation with AITFL augmentation using ST may be the preferred surgical method when treating patients with acute ankle injury involving an unstable syndesmosis and a PMF ≥25%.

Evolution in Surgical Management of Ankle Instability in Athletes.

Recent concepts are changing the management of ankle instability. These include concurrent medial and lateral instabilities, use of ankle arthroscopy, use of suture anchors, all-arthroscopic stabilization, synthetic augmentation, and early postoperative rehabilitation. Medial sided injuries occur in up to 72% of the lateral ankle sprains, and concomitant repair may provide greater stability. Suture anchors are equally as strong as transosseous tunnels, and the technique is simple, reproducible, and may decrease complications, but anchors do increase costs. Synthetic augmentation demonstrates greater strength than Broström alone in cadaver-based biomechanical testing. Although clinical studies of synthetic augmentation have demonstrated equivocal stability and pain compared with Broström alone, synthetic augmentation may expedite rehabilitation. All-arthroscopic ankle stabilization is gaining popularity with increasing publications. Early findings demonstrate comparable biomechanical and clinical data compared with open techniques. Early postoperative weight-bearing within 2 weeks seems to be safe and may shorten time to return to play. Surgeons may consider using these novel techniques in the management of lateral ankle instability.

Radiographic identification of the primary structures of the ankle syndesmosis.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to quantitatively describe the locations of the syndesmotic ligaments and the tibiofibular articulating cartilage surfaces on standard radiographic views using reproducible radiographic landmarks and reference axes. METHODS: Twelve non-paired ankles were dissected to identify the anterior-inferior tibiofibular ligament (AITFL), posterior-inferior tibiofibular ligament (PITFL), interosseous tibiofibular ligament (ITFL), and the cartilage surfaces of the syndesmosis. Structures were marked with 2-mm radiopaque spheres prior to obtaining lateral and mortise radiographs. Measurements were performed by two independent raters to assess intra- and interobserver reliability via intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). RESULTS: Measurements demonstrated excellent agreement between observers and across trials (all ICCs ≥ 0.960). On the lateral view, the AITFL tibial origin was 9.6 ± 1.5 mm superior and posterior to the anterior tibial plafond. Its fibular insertion was 4.4 ± 1.7 mm superior and posterior to the anterior fibular tubercle. The centre of the tibial cartilage facet of the tibiofibular contact zone was 8.4 ± 2.1 mm posterior and superior to the anterior plafond. The proximal and distal aspects of the ITFL tibial attachment were 45.9 ± 7.9 and 12.4 ± 3.4 mm proximal to the central plafond, respectively. The superficial and deep PITFL coursed anterior and distally from the posterior tibia to fibula. On the mortise view, the AITFL tibial attachment centre was 5.6 ± 2.4 mm lateral and superior to the lateral extent of the plafond (4.3 mm lateral, 3.3 mm superior), and its fibular insertion was 21.2 ± 2.1 mm superior and medial to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus. CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative radiographic guidelines describing the locations of the primary syndesmotic structures demonstrated excellent reliability and reproducibility. Defined guidelines provide additional clinically relevant information regarding the radiographic anatomy of the syndesmosis and may assist with preoperative planning, augment intraoperative navigation, and provide additional means for objective postoperative assessment.

Magnetic resonance imaging characterization of individual ankle syndesmosis structures in asymptomatic and surgically treated cohorts.

PURPOSE: Historically, syndesmosis injuries have been underdiagnosed. The purpose of this study was to characterize the 3.0-T MRI presentations of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis and its individual structures in both asymptomatic and injured cohorts. METHODS: Ten age-matched asymptomatic volunteers were imaged to characterize the asymptomatic syndesmotic anatomy. A series of 21 consecutive patients with a pre-operative 3.0-T ankle MRI and subsequent arthroscopic evaluation for suspected syndesmotic injury were reviewed and analysed. Prospectively collected pre-operative MRI findings were correlated with arthroscopy to assess diagnostic accuracy [sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV)]. RESULTS: Pathology diagnosed on pre-operative MRI correlated strongly with arthroscopic findings. Syndesmotic ligament disruption was prospectively diagnosed on MRI with excellent sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and accuracy: anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (87.5, 100, 100, 71.4, 90.5 %); posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (N/A, 95.2, 0.0, 100, 95.2 %); and interosseous tibiofibular ligament (66.7, 86.7, 66.7, 86.7, 81.0 %). CONCLUSIONS: Pre-operative 3.0-T MRI demonstrated excellent accuracy in the diagnosis of syndesmotic ligament tears and allowed for the visualization of relevant individual syndesmosis structures. Using a standard clinical ankle MRI protocol at 3.0-T, associated ligament injuries could be readily identified. Clinical implementation of optimal high-field MRI sequences in a standard clinical ankle MRI exam can aid in the diagnosis of syndesmotic injuries, augment pre-operative planning, and facilitate anatomic repair by providing additional details regarding the integrity of individual syndesmotic structures not discernible through physical examination and radiographic assessments. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II.

Radiographic Identification of the Deltoid Ligament Complex of the Medial Ankle.

BACKGROUND: An injury to the deltoid ligament complex of the ankle can require surgical intervention in cases of chronic instability. There is an absence of data describing medial ankle ligament anatomy on standard radiographic views. PURPOSE: To quantitatively describe the anatomic origins and insertions of the individual ligamentous bands of the superficial and deep deltoid on standard lateral and mortise radiographic views with reference to osseous landmarks and anatomic axes. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive laboratory study. METHODS: Twelve nonpaired, fresh-frozen cadaveric foot and ankle specimens were utilized. Specimens were dissected free of all overlying soft tissue to identify individual ligamentous bands of the superficial and deep deltoid ligaments and to isolate their distinct origins and insertions. Footprint centers were identified on standard lateral and mortise radiographs by 2-mm stainless steel spheres embedded at the level of the cortical bone. Distances to osseous landmarks were measured independently by 2 blinded reviewers to calculate mean distances and evaluate reliability and repeatability measures using intraclass correlation coefficients. RESULTS: Varying subsets of the 4 superficial deltoid bands including the tibionavicular (12/12), tibiospring (12/12), tibiocalcaneal (9/12), and superficial posterior tibiotalar (9/12) ligaments were found across specimens. On the lateral view, the tibionavicular ligament was the most anterior and attached 7.6 ± 1.9 mm superior and anterior to the inferior tip of the medial malleolus. The tibiospring ligament attached 12.1 ± 2.2 mm superior and anterior to the inferior tip of the medial malleolus and attached to the spring ligament, which coursed from its origin 12.3 ± 1.6 mm anterior and slightly inferior to the posterior point of the sustentaculum tali to its insertion on the navicular tuberosity. The tibiocalcaneal ligament and superficial posterior tibiotalar ligament were found posteriorly in the majority of specimens. Two constituents of the deep deltoid, including the deep anterior tibiotalar (11/12) and deep posterior tibiotalar (12/12) ligaments, were found in the majority of specimens. The deep posterior was larger and coursed from the tibia, 8.1 ± 2.2 mm posterior and superior to the inferior tip of the medial malleolus, to its attachment on the talus, 15.5 ± 2.4 mm superior and anterior to the posterior inferior point of the talus on the lateral view. CONCLUSION: Quantitative radiographic relationships describing the anatomic origins and insertions of the individual superficial and deep deltoid constituents were defined with excellent reliability and reproducibility. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Radiographic parameters will augment current anatomic data by assisting with preoperative planning, intraoperative guidance, and postoperative assessment. These radiographic guidelines will facilitate the development of novel anatomic reconstructions and allow surgeons to plan the locations of reconstruction tunnels.

A Biomechanical Comparison of an Open Repair and 3 Minimally Invasive Percutaneous Achilles Tendon Repair Techniques During a Simulated, Progressive Rehabilitation Protocol.

BACKGROUND: While the nonoperative management of Achilles tendon ruptures is a viable option, surgical repair is preferred in healthy and active populations. Recently, minimally invasive percutaneous repair methods with assistive devices have been developed. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to biomechanically analyze 3 commercially available, minimally invasive percutaneous techniques compared with an open Achilles repair during a simulated, progressive rehabilitation program. It was hypothesized that no significant biomechanical differences would exist between repair techniques. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: A simulated, midsubstance Achilles rupture was created 6 cm proximal to the calcaneal insertion in 33 fresh-frozen cadaveric ankles. Specimens were then randomly allocated to 1 of 4 different Achilles repair techniques: (1) open repair, (2) the Achillon Achilles Tendon Suture System, (3) the PARS Achilles Jig System, or (4) an Achilles Midsubstance SpeedBridge Repair variation. Repairs were subjected to a cyclic loading protocol representative of progressive postoperative rehabilitation: 250 cycles at 1 Hz for each loading range: 20-100 N, 20-200 N, 20-300 N, and 20-400 N. RESULTS: The open repair technique demonstrated significantly less elongation (5.2 ± 1.1 mm) when compared with all minimally invasive percutaneous repair methods after 250 cycles (P < .05). No significant differences were observed after 250 cycles between the Achillon, PARS, or SpeedBridge repairs, with mean displacements of 9.9 ± 2.2 mm, 12.2 ± 4.4 mm, and 10.0 ± 3.9 mm, respectively. When examined over smaller cyclic intervals, the majority of elongation, regardless of repair, occurred within the first 10 cycles. Within the first 10 cycles, open repairs achieved 71.2% of the total elongation observed after 250 cycles. Corresponding values for the Achillon, PARS, and SpeedBridge repairs were 81.8%, 77.9%, and 69.0%, respectively. No significant differences were observed in the total number of cycles to failure between minimally invasive percutaneous repairs and open repairs. Minor differences in the mechanism of failure were noted; however, the majority of all repairs failed at the suture-tendon interface. CONCLUSION: Minimally invasive percutaneous repair techniques demonstrated a susceptibility to significant early repair elongation when compared with open repairs. However, the ultimate strengths of repairs (cycles to failure) were comparable across all techniques. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The reduced early elongation of open repairs suggests that patients treated with this technique may be able to progress through an earlier and/or more aggressive postoperative rehabilitation protocol with a lower risk of early irrevocable repair elongation or gapping about the repair site. However, in cases where cosmesis or wound-healing complications are of significant concern, minimally invasive percutaneous techniques provide a biomechanically reasonable alternative based on their repair strengths (cycles to failure). These repairs may need to be protected longer postoperatively to allow for biological healing and avoid early repair elongation and potential gapping between the healing tendon ends.

Radiographic Outcomes of a Mobile-Bearing Total Ankle Replacement.

BACKGROUND: Contemporary total ankle prostheses embody design changes intended to address weaknesses in first-generation implants. Due to these changes, outcomes of the newer designs are of particular interest. We have previously published self-reported patient outcomes for the STAR (Scandinavian Total Ankle Replacement) prosthesis. The present study documents radiographic outcome measurements for the STAR prosthesis at intermediate to long-term follow-up. METHODS: Of 89 consecutive ankle replacements performed between July 1998 and April 2007, 79 had a minimum follow-up of 2 years and were followed prospectively. Serial radiographs were measured by 2 of the authors, including varus, valgus, alpha, beta, and gamma angles, as well as point contact ratio. Inter- and intrarater reliability was calculated and reported. A "severe" subgroup of patients with preoperative coronal plane deformity exceeding 10 degrees was assessed separately. Preoperative and immediate postoperative measurements were compared and maintenance of correction evaluated on subsequent radiographs. Heterotopic ossification and pericomponent lucency were documented and followed, and subsequent procedures were recorded to follow survivorship. The mean follow-up was 8.0 years. RESULTS: Of the 79 ankles, 25 underwent a secondary surgery (31.6%). Coronal correction averaged 5.1 degrees (P < .001), and this was maintained to final follow-up. The severe subgroup (n = 21), with a mean preoperative coronal angulation of 16.1 degrees, was corrected to 4.6 degrees at final follow-up (P < .001). The severe subgroup had a higher secondary surgery rate at 33.3%, with metallic component revision or failure occurring in 3 cases (14.3%) compared to 8 (10.1%) in the entire cohort. The heterotopic ossification rate was 100%, slightly higher than prior reports. CONCLUSIONS: STAR prosthesis survivorship was similar to that documented in prior studies of second-generation implants in European patient cohorts. Statistically significant correction in coronal alignment was achieved immediately after surgery and maintained until a final mean follow-up of 8 years, even in patients with preoperative deformity greater than 10 degrees. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, retrospective cohort study.

Biomechanical Analysis of an Arthroscopic Broström Ankle Ligament Repair and a Suture Anchor-Augmented Repair.

BACKGROUND: Secondary surgical repair of ankle ligaments is often indicated in cases of chronic lateral ankle instability. Recently, arthroscopic Broström techniques have been described, but biomechanical information is limited. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the biomechanical properties of an arthroscopic Broström repair and augmented repair with a proximally placed suture anchor. It was hypothesized that the arthroscopic Broström repairs would compare favorably to open techniques and that augmentation would increase the mean repair strength at time zero. METHODS: Twenty (10 matched pairs) fresh-frozen foot and ankle cadaveric specimens were obtained. After sectioning of the lateral ankle ligaments, an arthroscopic Broström procedure was performed on each ankle using two 3.0-mm suture anchors with #0 braided polyethylene/polyester multifilament sutures. One specimen from each pair was augmented with a 2.9-mm suture anchor placed 3 cm proximal to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus. Repairs were isolated and positioned in 20 degrees of inversion and 10 degrees of plantarflexion and loaded to failure using a dynamic tensile testing machine. Maximum load (N), stiffness (N/mm), and displacement at maximum load (mm) were recorded. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between standard arthroscopic repairs and the augmented repairs for mean maximum load and stiffness (154.4 ± 60.3 N, 9.8 ± 2.6 N/mm vs 194.2 ± 157.7 N, 10.5 ± 4.7 N/mm, P = .222, P = .685). CONCLUSIONS: Repair augmentation did not confer a significantly higher mean strength or stiffness at time zero. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Mean strength and stiffness for the arthroscopic Broström repair compared favorably with previous similarly tested open repair and reconstruction methods, validating the clinical feasibility of an arthroscopic repair. However, augmentation with an additional proximal suture anchor did not significantly strengthen the repair.

Radiographic identification of the primary lateral ankle structures.

BACKGROUND: Lateral ankle ligament injuries rank among the most frequently observed athletic injuries, requiring repair or reconstruction when indicated. However, there is a lack of quantitative data detailing the ligament attachment sites on standard radiographic views. PURPOSE: To quantitatively describe the anatomic attachment sites of the anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL), calcaneofibular ligament (CFL), and posterior talofibular ligament (PTFL) on standard radiographic views with respect to reproducible osseous landmarks to assist with intraoperative and postoperative assessment of lateral ankle ligament repairs and reconstructions. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive laboratory study. METHODS: Twelve nonpaired, fresh-frozen cadaveric foot and ankle specimens were dissected to identify the origins and insertions of the 3 primary lateral ankle ligaments. Ligament footprint centers were marked with 2-mm stainless steel spheres shallowly embedded at the level of the cortical bone prior to obtaining standard lateral and mortise radiographs. Measurements were performed twice by 2 blinded raters independently to calculate mean distances and assess reliability via intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). RESULTS: Radiographic measurements demonstrated excellent reproducibility between raters (all interobserver ICCs>0.97) and across trials (all intraobserver ICCs>0.99). On the lateral view, the ATFL fibular attachment (mean±SD) was 8.4±1.8 mm proximal and anterior to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus and attached on the talus 13.8±2.0 mm proximal and anterior to the apex of the lateral talar process. The CFL originated 5.0±1.4 mm superior and anterior to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus and inserted on the calcaneus 18.5±4.6 mm posterior and superior to the posterior point of the peroneal tubercle. On the mortise view, the ATFL origin was 4.9±1.4 mm proximal to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus and inserted on the talus 9.0±2.1 mm medial and superior of the apex of the lateral talar process and 18.9±3.1 mm inferior and slightly lateral to the superior lateral corner of the talar dome. The fibular CFL origin was 2.9±1.6 mm proximal and slightly medial to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus and inserted on the calcaneus 18.0±5.1 mm distal to the apex of the lateral talar process. CONCLUSION: Radiographic parameters quantitatively describing the anatomic origins and insertions of the lateral ankle ligaments were defined with excellent reproducibility and agreement between reviewers. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Quantitative radiographic anatomy data will assist in preoperative planning, improve intraoperative localization, and provide objective measures for postoperative assessment of anatomic repairs and reconstructions.

Procrastination of wound drainage and malnutrition affect the outcome of joint arthroplasty.

UNLABELLED: The association between wound drainage and subsequent periprosthetic infection is well known. However, the most appropriate treatment of wound drainage is not well understood. We retrospectively reviewed the records of 10,325 patients (11,785 procedures), among whom 300 patients (2.9%) developed persistent (greater than 48 hours postoperatively) wound drainage. Wound drainage stopped spontaneously between 2 and 4 days in 217 patients treated with local wound care and oral antibiotics. The remaining 83 patients (28%) underwent further surgery. A single débridement resulted in cessation of drainage without subsequent infection in 63 of 83 patients (76%), whereas 20 (24%) patients continued to drain and underwent additional treatment (repeat débridement, resection arthroplasty, or long-term antibiotics). Timing of surgery and the presence of malnutrition predicted failure of the first débridement. There were no differences between the success and failure groups with regard to all other examined parameters, including demographic or surgical factors. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, prognostic study. See the Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.