Characterization of the robotic surgery experience in minimally invasive surgery fellowships from 2010 to 2021.

BACKGROUND: Robotic surgery has experienced exponential growth in the past decade. Few studies have evaluated the impact of robotics within minimally invasive surgery (MIS) fellowship training programs. The purpose of our study was to examine and characterize recent trends in robotic surgery within MIS fellowship training programs. METHODS: De-identified case log data from the Fellowship Council from 2010 to 2021 were evaluated. Percentage of operations performed with robot assistance over time was assessed and compared to the laparoscopic and open experience. Case logs were further stratified by operative category (e.g., bariatric, hernia, foregut), and robotic experience over time was evaluated for each category. Programs were stratified by percent robot use and the experience over time within each quartile was evaluated. RESULTS: MIS fellowship training programs with a robotic platform increased from 45.1% (51/113) to 90.4% (123/136) over the study period. The percentage of robotic cases increased from 2.0% (1127/56,033) to 23.2% (16,139/69,496) while laparoscopic cases decreased from 80.2% (44,954/56,033) to 65.3% (45,356/69,496). Hernia and colorectal case categories had the largest increase in robot usage [hernia: 0.7% (62/8614) to 38.4% (4661/12,135); colorectal 4.2% (116/2747) to 31.8% (666/2094)]. When stratified by percentage of robot utilization, current (2020-2021) programs in the > 95th percentile performed 21.8% (3523/16,139) of robotic operations and programs in the > 50th percentile performed 90.0% (14,533/16,139) of all robotic cases. The median number of robotic cases performed per MIS fellow significantly increased from 2010 to 2021 [0 (0-6) to 72.5 (17.8-171.5), p < 0.01]. CONCLUSIONS: Robotic use in MIS fellowship training programs has grown substantially in the past decade, but the laparoscopic and open experience remains robust. There remains an imbalance with the top 50% of busiest robotic programs performing over 90% of robot trainee cases. The experience in MIS programs varies widely and trainees should examine program case logs closely to confirm parallel interests.

Operative and long-term outcomes of combined and staged carotid endarterectomy and coronary bypass.

OBJECTIVE: Optimal temporal surgical management of significant carotid stenosis and coronary artery disease remains unknown. Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) and coronary artery bypass (CABG) are performed concurrently (CCAB) or in a staged (CEA-CABG or CABG-CEA) approach. Using the Vascular Quality Initiative-Vascular Implant Surveillance and Interventional Outcomes Coordinated Registry Network-Medicare-linked dataset, this study compared operative and long-term outcomes after CCAB and staged approaches. METHODS: The Vascular Quality Initiative-Vascular Implant Surveillance and Interventional Outcomes Coordinated Registry Network dataset was used to identify CEAs from 2011 to 2018 with combined CABG or CABG within 45 days preceding or after CEA. Patients were stratified based on concurrent or staged approach. Primary outcomes were stroke, myocardial infarction (MI), all-cause mortality, stroke and death as composite (SD) and all as composite within 30 days from the last procedure as well as in the long term. Univariate analysis and risk-adjusted analysis using inverse propensity weighting were performed. Kaplan-Meier curves of stroke, MI, and death were created and compared. RESULTS: There were 1058 patients included: 643 CCAB and 415 staged (309 CEA-CABG and 106 CABG-CEA). Compared with staged patients, those undergoing CCAB had a higher preoperative rate of congestive heart failure (24.8% vs 18.4%; P = .01) and decreased renal function (14.9% vs 8.5%; P < .01), as well as fewer prior neurological events (23.5% vs 31.4%; P < .01). Patients undergoing CCAB had similar weighted rate of 30-day stroke (4.6% vs 4.1%; P = .72), death (7.0% vs 5.0%; P = .32), and composite outcomes (stroke and death, 9.8% vs 8.5%; P = .56; stroke, death, and MI, 14.7% vs 17.4%; P = .31), but a lower weighted rate of MI (5.5% vs 11.5%; P < .01) vs the staged cohort. Long-term adjusted risks of stroke (hazard ratio [HR], 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.54-1.36; P = .51) and mortality (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.76-1.36; P=.91) were similar between groups, but higher risk of MI long-term was seen in those staged (HR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.07-2.08; P = .02). CONCLUSIONS: In patients undergoing CCAB or staged open revascularization for carotid stenosis and coronary artery disease, the staged approach had an increased risk of postoperative cardiac event, but the short- and long-term rates of stroke and mortality seem to be comparable. Adverse cardiovascular event risk is high between operations when staged and should be a consideration when selecting an approach. Although factors leading to staged sequencing performance need further clarity, CCAB seems to be safe and should be considered an equally reasonable option.

Gastric Aspiration and Ventilator-Induced Model of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Swine.

INTRODUCTION: Mainstays of current treatment for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) focus on supportive care and rely on intrinsic organ recovery. Animal models of ARDS are often limited by systemic injury. We hypothesize that superimposing gastric aspiration and ventilator-induced injury will induce a lung-specific injury model of severe ARDS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adult swine (n = 8) were subject to a 12 h injury development period followed by 24 h of post-injury monitoring. Lung injury was induced with gastric secretions (3 cc/kg body weight/lung, pH 1-2) instilled to bilateral mainstem bronchi under direct bronchoscopic vision. Ventilator settings within the injury period contradicted baseline settings using high tidal volumes and low positive end-expiratory pressure. Baseline settings were restored following the injury period. Arterial oxygenation and lung compliance were monitored. RESULTS: At 12 h, PaO2/FiO2 ratio and static and dynamic compliance were significantly reduced from baseline (P < 0.05). During the postinjury period, animals showed no signs of recovery in PaO2/FiO2 ratio and lung compliance. Lung edema (wet/dry weight ratio) of injured lungs was significantly elevated versus noninjured lungs (8.5 ± 1.7 versus 5.6 ± 0.3, P = 0.009). Expression of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8 were significantly elevated in injured lungs (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Twelve hours of high tidal volume and low positive end-expiratory pressure in conjunction with low-pH gastric content instillation produces significant acute lung injury in swine. This large animal model may be useful for testing severe ARDS treatment strategies.

Residents as Leaders: Using a Delphi Process to Conduct an Institutional Preoperative Patient Optimization Quality Improvement Initiative.

BACKGROUND: Many residency programs struggle to meet the ACGME requirement for resident participation in quality improvement initiatives. STUDY DESIGN: As part of an institutional quality improvement effort, trainees from the Departments of Surgery and Anesthesiology at a single academic medical center were teamed with institutional content experts in 7 key risk factor areas within preoperative patient optimization. A systematic review of each subject matter area was performed using the MEDLINE database. Institutional recommendations for the screening and management of each risk factor were developed and approved using modified Delphi consensus methodology. Upon project completion, an electronic survey was administered to all individuals who participated in the process to assess the perceived value of participation. RESULTS: Fifty-one perioperative stakeholders participated in recommendation development: 26 trainees and 25 content experts. Residents led 6 out of 7 groups specific to a subject area within preoperative optimization. A total of 4,649 abstracts were identified, of which 456 full-text articles were selected for inclusion in recommendation development. Seventeen out of 26 (65.4%) trainees completed the survey. The vast majority of trainees reported increased understanding of their preoperative optimization subject area (15/17 [88.2%]) as well as the Delphi consensus method (14/17 [82.4%]) after participation in the project. Fourteen out of 17 (82.4%) trainees stated that they would participate in a similar quality improvement initiative again. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate a novel way to involve trainees in an institutional quality initiative that served to educate trainees in quality improvement, the systematic review process, Delphi methodology, and preoperative optimization. This study provides a framework that other residency programs can use to engage residents in institutional quality improvement efforts.

Influence of broader geographic allograft sharing on outcomes and cost in smaller lung transplant centers.

OBJECTIVE: On November 24, 2017, Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network implemented a change to lung allocation replacing donor service area with a 250 nautical mile radius around donor hospitals. We sought to evaluate the experience of a small to medium size center following implementation. METHODS: Patients (47 pre and 54 post) undergoing lung transplantation were identified from institutional database from January 2016 to October 2019. Detailed chart review and analysis of institutional cost data was performed. Univariate analysis was performed to compare eras. RESULTS: Similar short-term mortality and primary graft dysfunction were observed between groups. Decreased local donation (68% vs 6%; P < .001), increased travel distance (145 vs 235 miles; P = .004), travel cost ($8626 vs $14,482; P < .001), and total procurement cost ($60,852 vs $69,052; P = .001) were observed postimplementation. We also document an increase in waitlist mortality postimplementation (6.9 vs 31.6 per 100 patient-years; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Following implementation of the new allocation policy in a small to medium size center, several changes were in accordance with policy intention. However, concerning shifts emerged, including increased waitlist mortality and resource utilization. Continued close monitoring of transplant centers stratified by size and location are paramount to maintaining global availability of lung transplantation to all Americans regardless of geographic residence or socioeconomic status.

Secondary Burn Progression Mitigated by an Adenosine 2A Receptor Agonist.

Current burn therapy is largely supportive with limited therapies to curb secondary burn progression. Adenosine 2A receptor (A2AR) agonists have anti-inflammatory effects with decreased inflammatory cell infiltrate and release of proinflammatory mediators. Using a porcine comb burn model, we examined whether A2AR agonists could mitigate burn progression. Eight full-thickness comb burns (four prongs with three spaces per comb) per pig were generated with the following specifications: temperature 115°C, 3-kg force, and 30-second application time. In a randomized fashion, animals (four per group) were then treated with A2AR agonist (ATL-1223, 3 ng/kg/min, intravenous infusion over 6 hours) or vehicle control. Necrotic interspace development was the primary outcome and additional histologic assessments were conducted. Analysis of unburned interspaces (72 per group) revealed that ATL-1223 treatment decreased the rate of necrotic interspace development over the first 4 days following injury (p < .05). Treatment significantly decreased dermal neutrophil infiltration at 48 hours following burn (14.63 ± 4.30 vs 29.71 ± 10.76 neutrophils/high-power field, p = .029). Additionally, ATL-1223 treatment was associated with fewer interspaces with evidence of microvascular thrombi through postburn day 4 (18.8% vs 56.3%, p = .002). Two weeks following insult, the depth of injury at distinct burn sites (adjacent to interspaces) was significantly reduced by ATL-1223 treatment (2.91 ± 0.47 vs 3.28 ± 0.58 mm, p = .038). This work demonstrates the ability of an A2AR agonist to mitigate burn progression through dampening local inflammatory processes. Extended dosing strategies may yield additional benefit and improve cosmetic outcome in those with severe injury.

Endothelial Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 Channels Mediate Lung Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

BACKGROUND: Lung ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), involving severe inflammation and edema, is a major cause of primary graft dysfunction after transplant. Activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channels modulates vascular permeability. Thus, this study tests the hypothesis that endothelial TRPV4 channels mediate lung IRI. METHODS: A left lung hilar-ligation model was used to induce lung IR in C57BL/6 wild-type (WT), Trpv4-/-, tamoxifen-inducible endothelial Trpv4 knockout (Trpv4EC-/-), and tamoxifen-treated control (Trpv4fl/fl) (n ≥ 6 mice/group). WT mice were also treated with GSK2193874 (WT+GSK219), a TRPV4-specific inhibitor (1 mg/kg). Partial pressure of arterial oxygen, edema (wet-to-dry weight ratio), compliance, neutrophil infiltration, and cytokine concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were assessed. Pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells were characterized in vitro after exposure to hypoxia-reoxygenation. RESULTS: Compared with WT, partial pressure of arterial oxygen after IR was significantly improved in Trpv4-/- mice (133.1 ± 43.9 vs 427.8 ± 83.1 mm Hg, P < .001) and WT+GSK219 mice (133.1 ± 43.9 vs 447.0 ± 67.6 mm Hg, P < .001). Pulmonary edema and neutrophil infiltration were also significantly reduced after IR in Trpv4-/- and WT+GSK219 mice vs WT. Trpv4EC-/- mice after IR demonstrated significantly improved oxygenation vs control (109.2 ± 21.6 vs 405.3 ± 41.4 mm Hg, P < .001) as well as significantly improved compliance and significantly less edema, neutrophil infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokine production (tumor necrosis factor-a, chemokine [C-X-C motif] ligand 1, interleukin 17, interferon-γ). Hypoxia-reoxygenation-induced permeability and chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 expression by pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells were significantly attenuated by TRPV4 inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: Endothelial TRPV4 plays a key role in vascular permeability and lung inflammation after IR. TRPV4 channels may be a promising therapeutic target to mitigate lung IRI and decrease the incidence of primary graft dysfunction after transplant.

Two Hours of In Vivo Lung Perfusion Improves Lung Function in Sepsis-Induced Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.

Sepsis is the leading cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in adults and carries a high mortality. Utilizing a previously validated porcine model of sepsis-induced ARDS, we sought to refine our novel therapeutic technique of in vivo lung perfusion (IVLP). We hypothesized that 2 hours of IVLP would provide non-inferior lung rehabilitation compared to 4 hours of treatment. Adult swine (n = 8) received lipopolysaccharide to develop ARDS and were placed on central venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Animals were randomized to 2 vs 4 hours of IVLP. The left pulmonary vessels were cannulated to IVLP using antegrade Steen solution. After IVLP treatment, the left lung was decannulated and reperfused for 4 hours. Total lung compliance and pulmonary venous gases from the right lung (control) and left lung (treatment) were sampled hourly. Biochemical analysis of tissue and bronchioalveolar lavage was performed along with tissue histologic assessment. Throughout IVLP and reperfusion, treated left lung PaO2/FiO2 ratio was significantly higher than the right lung control in the 2-hour group (332.2 ± 58.9 vs 264.4 ± 46.5, P = 0.01). In the 4-hour group, there was no difference between treatment and control lung PaO2/FiO2 ratio (258.5 ± 72.4 vs 253.2 ± 90.3, P = 0.58). Wet-to-dry weight ratios demonstrated reduced edema in the treated left lungs of the 2-hour group (6.23 ± 0.73 vs 7.28 ± 0.61, P = 0.03). Total lung compliance was also significantly improved in the 2-hour group. Two hours of IVLP demonstrated superior lung function in this preclinical model of sepsis-induced ARDS. Clinical translation of IVLP may shorten duration of mechanical support and improve outcomes.

Commentary: Malpractice in heart transplantation.

The field of heart transplantation is complex and carries substantial risk of medical malpractice. It is essential for heart transplant surgeons to understand litigation trends to minimize risk and continue to optimize patient care. Below we provide commentary on a recent article from the Journal of Cardiac Surgery discussing this topic. The risk of medical malpractice in heart transplantation may be decreased with seamless communication between provider teams, minimizing operative errors, thorough informed consent, and improved provider emotional intelligence.

Role of the purinergic signaling network in lung ischemia-reperfusion injury.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Primary graft dysfunction (PGD) is the leading cause of early mortality following lung transplantation and is typically caused by lung ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Current management of PGD is largely supportive and there are no approved therapies to prevent lung IRI after transplantation. The purinergic signaling network plays an important role in this sterile inflammatory process, and pharmacologic manipulation of said network is a promising therapeutic strategy. This review will summarize recent findings in this area. RECENT FINDINGS: In the past 18 months, our understanding of lung IRI has improved, and it is becoming clear that the purinergic signaling network plays a vital role. Recent works have identified critical components of the purinergic signaling network (Pannexin-1 channels, ectonucleotidases, purinergic P1 and P2 receptors) involved in inflammation in a number of pathologic states including lung IRI. In addition, a functionally-related calcium channel, the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 4 (TRPV4) channel, has recently been linked to purinergic signaling and has also been shown to mediate lung IRI. SUMMARY: Agents targeting components of the purinergic signaling network are promising potential therapeutics to limit inflammation associated with lung IRI and thus decrease the risk of developing PGD.

Commentary: Litigation risk in congenital cardiac surgery.

The risk of malpractice litigation is substantial for congenital cardiac surgeons. It is important for providers to be equipped with strategies to minimize this risk without compromising patient care. Below, we provide a commentary on a recent article from the Journal of Cardiac Surgery discussing litigation risk in this field. To minimize liability and provide optimal care, it is critical that congenital cardiac surgeons focus on both tangible objectives, such as decreasing procedural errors, and less tangible objectives, such as improving surgeon empathy and emotional intelligence.

Burden of Tricuspid Regurgitation in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting.

BACKGROUND: Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is associated with poor outcomes after cardiac surgery. Guidelines recommend correction of severe TR in patients undergoing left-sided valve surgery but not coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG). We sought to evaluate impact of TR on outcomes after CABG. METHODS: All patients (n = 28,027) undergoing CABG in The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) regional database (2011 to 2018) were stratified by TR severity. Primary outcomes included major morbidity or mortality, which were compared using univariate analysis. RESULTS: Of patients undergoing CABG, 4837 (17%) had mild, 800 (3%) had moderate, and 81 (0.29%) had severe TR. Increased severity was associated with higher rate of preoperative heart failure (none 5162 [23.4%] vs mild 1697 [35%] vs moderate 427 [53%] vs severe 54 [67%], P < .001] and STS predicted risk of mortality (1.0 [0.6 to 1.9) vs 1.4 [0.8 to 2.9] vs 2.8 [1.4 to 5.4] vs 6.2 [2.2 to 11.4], P < .001). Increasing severity was associated with higher postoperative rate of renal failure (426 [1.9%] vs 145 [3%] vs 58 [7.3%] vs 7 [8.6%], P < .001), prolonged ventilation (1652 [7.5%] vs 495 [10.2%] vs 153 [19.1%] vs 22 [27.2%], P < .001), and mortality (344 [1.6%] vs 132 [2.7%] vs 58 [7.3%] vs 9 [11.1%], P < .001). After risk adjustment, mild, moderate, and severe TR remained associated with increased morbidity and mortality (all P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Increasing TR severity, although independently associated with higher surgical risk, is not accounted for entirely by STS risk calculator. This highlights the importance of TR on operative risk and supports consideration of concurrent tricuspid intervention for patients with significant TR undergoing CABG.

Isolated Lung Perfusion in the Management of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is associated with high morbidity and mortality, and current management has a dramatic impact on healthcare resource utilization. While our understanding of this disease has improved, the majority of treatment strategies remain supportive in nature and are associated with continued poor outcomes. There is a dramatic need for the development and breakthrough of new methods for the treatment of ARDS. Isolated machine lung perfusion is a promising surgical platform that has been associated with the rehabilitation of injured lungs and the induction of molecular and cellular changes in the lung, including upregulation of anti-inflammatory and regenerative pathways. Initially implemented in an ex vivo fashion to evaluate marginal donor lungs prior to transplantation, recent investigations of isolated lung perfusion have shifted in vivo and are focused on the management of ARDS. This review presents current tenants of ARDS management and isolated lung perfusion, with a focus on how ex vivo lung perfusion (EVLP) has paved the way for current investigations utilizing in vivo lung perfusion (IVLP) in the treatment of severe ARDS.

Gastrointestinal Complications After Cardiac Surgery: Highly Morbid but Improving Over Time.

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal complications after cardiac surgery are associated with high morbidity and mortality. We sought to determine the granular impact of individual gastrointestinal complications after cardiac surgery and assess contemporary outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients undergoing cardiac surgery from 2010 to 2017 (6070 patients) were identified from an institutional Society of Thoracic Surgeons database. Records were paired with institutional data assessing gastrointestinal complications and cost. Patients were stratified by early (2010-2013) and current (2014-2017) eras. RESULTS: A total of 280 (4.6%) patients experienced gastrointestinal complications including Clostridiumdifficile infection (94, 33.6%), gastrointestinal bleed (86, 30.7%), hepatic failure (66, 23.6%), prolonged ileus (59, 21.1%), mesenteric ischemia (47, 16.8%), acute cholecystitis (17, 6.0%), and pancreatitis (14, 5.0%). Gastrointestinal complications were associated with higher rates of early postoperative major morbidity [206 (73.6%) versus 773 (13.4%), P < 0.0001], mortality [78 (27.9%) versus 161 (2.8%), P < 0.0001], length of stay (23 versus 6 d, P < 0.0001), and discharge to a facility [115 (41.1%) versus 1395 (24.1%), P < 0.0001]. Patients suffering gastrointestinal complications had worse risk-adjusted long-term survival (hazard ratio: 3.0, P < 0.0001) and higher adjusted cost ($9,173, P = 0.05). Between eras, there was no difference in incidence of gastrointestinal complications [139 (4.4%) versus 141 (4.8%), P = 0.51] or rate of specific complications (all P > 0.05). However, long-term survival increased in modern era (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Although incidence of gastrointestinal complications after cardiac surgery has not changed over time, long-term survival has improved. Gastrointestinal complications remain associated with high resource utilization and major morbidity, but patients are now more likely to recover, highlighting the benefit of quality improvement efforts.

Enhanced Recovery After Thoracic Surgery.

Enhanced recovery pathways (ERPs), used across multiple surgical subspecialties, is a multidisciplinary delivery of perioperative care designed to lessen the psychological stress of patients undergoing surgery. Thoracic ERP has been implemented but is not widespread, and variations exist between programs. Evidence of the benefit of thoracic ERP is emerging. This article presents common components of a thoracic surgery ERP and reviews contemporary outcomes.

Need for Permanent Pacemaker After Surgical Aortic Valve Replacement Reduces Long-Term Survival.

BACKGROUND: Permanent pacemaker (PPM) implantation has been touted as an inconsequential complication after transcatheter aortic valve replacement. As transcatheter aortic valve replacement moves to lower risk patients, the long-term implications remain poorly understood; therefore, we evaluated the long-term outcomes of pacemaker for surgical aortic valve replacement patients. METHODS: A total of 2,600 consecutive patients undergoing surgical aortic valve replacement over the past 15 years were reviewed using The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) institutional database and Social Security death records. Patients were stratified by placement of a PPM within 30 days of surgery. The impact of PPM placement on long-term survival was assessed by Kaplan-Meier analysis and risk-adjusted survival by Cox proportional hazards modeling. RESULTS: A total of 72 patients (2.7%) required PPM placement postoperatively. Patients requiring PPM had more postoperative complications, including atrial fibrillation (43.1% versus 27.0%, p = 0.003), prolonged ventilation (16.7% versus 5.7%, p < 0.0001), and renal failure (12.5% versus 4.6%, p = 0.002). These led to greater resource utilization including longer intensive care unit stay (89 versus 44 hours, p < 0.0001) and hospital length of stay (9 versus 6 days, p < 0.0001), and higher inflation-adjusted hospital cost ($81,000 versus $47,000, p < 0.0001). Median follow-up was 7.5 years, and patients requiring PPM had significantly worse long-term survival (p = 0.02), even after risk adjustment with STS predicted risk of mortality (hazard ratio 1.48, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The need for PPM after aortic valve replacement independently reduces long-term survival. The rate of PPM placement after surgical aortic valve replacement remains very low but dramatically increases resource utilization. As transcatheter aortic valve replacement expands to low-risk patients, the impact of PPM placement on long-term survival warrants close monitoring.