ITS rDNA phylogeny of Iranian strains of Cytospora and associated teleomorphs.

Cytospora spp. and associated teleomorphic species (Ascomycota, Diaporthales, Valsaceae) are among the most common and widespread canker- and dieback-causing fungi on trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants worldwide. From specimens collected all over Iran a total of 114 isolates were morphologically identified, representing 20 Cytospora, one Leucostoma and five Valsa species from 38 plant species. Nine of the identified taxa were new records for Iran, and many new hosts were identified. The phylogenetic relationships of the Iranian strains, along with sequences of 13 reference strains from GenBank, were inferred from ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 nuclear rDNA sequences. Parsimony analysis established five distinct major clades and 12 subclades, which represented accepted species and genera. Some of these subclades corresponded to morphologically based taxonomic concepts of single Cytospora species, while others contained more than one morphospecies. Teleomorphic states were present in six subclades, and most clustered with the corresponding anamorphs. This suggests that morphological and phylogenetic species concepts overlap and that in most cases they are meaningful for correct species identification.

Immunomodulating and anticancer agents in the realm of macromycetes fungi (macrofungi).

Nowadays macrofungi are distinguished as important natural resources of immunomodulating and anticancer agents and with regard to the increase in diseases involving immune dysfunction, cancer, autoimmune conditions in recent years, applying such immunomodulator agents especially with the natural original is vital. These compounds belong mainly to polysaccharides especially beta-d-glucan derivates, glycopeptide/protein complexes (polysaccharide-peptide/protein complexes), proteoglycans, proteins and triterpenoids. Among polysaccharides, beta(1-->3)-d-glucans and their peptide/protein derivates and among proteins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins (Fips) have more important role in immunomodulating and antitumor activities. Immunomodulating and antitumor activity of these metabolites related to their effects to act of immune effecter cells such as hematpoietic stem cells, lymphocytes, macrophages, T cells, dendritic cells (DCs), and natural killer (NK) cells involved in the innate and adaptive immunity, resulting in the production of biologic response modifiers. In this review we have introduced the medicinal mushrooms' metabolites with immunomoduling and antitumor activities according to immunological evidences and then demonstrated their effects on innate and adaptive immunity and also the mechanisms of activation of immune responses and signaling cascade. In addition, their molecular structure and their relation to these activities have been shown. The important instances of these metabolites along with their immunomodulating and/or antitumor activities isolated from putative medicinal mushrooms are also introduced.