ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: Increased plasma levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) in midlife are associated with increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), whereas in older age the opposite association is observed. Whether genetically determined CRP is associated with AD remains unclear. METHODS: A total of 111,242 White individuals from the Copenhagen General Population Study and the Copenhagen City Heart Study were included. Plasma levels of CRP and four regulatory genetic variants in the CRP gene were determined. RESULTS: For CRP percentile group 1 to 5 (lowest plasma CRP) versus the 50 to 75 group (reference), the hazard ratio for AD was 1.69 (95% confidence interval 1.29-2.16). Genetically low CRP was associated with increased risk of AD in individuals with body mass index ≤25 kg/m2 (P = 4 × 10-6 ). DISCUSSION: Low plasma levels of CRP at baseline were associated with high risk of AD in individuals from the general population. These observational findings were supported by genetic studies.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease , C-Reactive Protein , Humans , Alzheimer Disease/epidemiology , Alzheimer Disease/genetics , Body Mass Index , C-Reactive Protein/chemistry , Proportional Hazards Models , Prospective Studies , Risk FactorsABSTRACT
The impact of bariatric surgery on insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance has refocused interest in the role of gut-derived factors in the regulation of insulin secretion and action. The incretins, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) are released from endocrine cells in the small intestinal mucosa primarily in response to oral nutrient ingestion. They have various effects, including augmentation of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), actions that promote the cellular assimilation and storage of dietary glucose and lipid as liver and skeletal muscle glycogen and adipocyte triacylglycerol (TAG) respectively. Similarly, increased delivery of fatty acids (FA) acutely augments GSIS, and the resultant enhancement of GSIS facilitates FA storage as adipocyte TAG. Leptin secretion from white adipocytes curbs appetite to limit dietary nutrient intake and adipocyte TAG storage and, potentially, GSIS, thereby curtailing insulin-dependent TAG storage. On fasting, GSIS is curbed, an effect the mechanism of which is even now incompletely understood, but which may reflect augmented ß-cell FA oxidation. The orexigen ghrelin, systemic concentrations of which increase with fasting, exerts enigmatic effects on GSIS, in that acylated ghrelin and unacylated ghrelin exert opposing effects on GSIS, whereas acylated ghrelin and unacylated ghrelin share protective effects on islet survival. This review will build on these emerging studies to evaluate the roles of the incretins, leptin, lipids and acylated and unacylated ghrelin in modulating islet function and survival during feasting and fasting.
