A graph-based approach can improve keypoint detection of complex poses: a proof-of-concept on injury occurrences in alpine ski racing.

For most applications, 2D keypoint detection works well and offers a simple and fast tool to analyse human movements. However, there remain many situations where even the best state-of-the-art algorithms reach their limits and fail to detect human keypoints correctly. Such situations may occur especially when individual body parts are occluded, twisted, or when the whole person is flipped. Especially when analysing injuries in alpine ski racing, such twisted and rotated body positions occur frequently. To improve the detection of keypoints for this application, we developed a novel method that refines keypoint estimates by rotating the input videos. We select the best rotation for every frame with a graph-based global solver. Thereby, we improve keypoint detection of an arbitrary pose estimation algorithm, in particular for 'hard' keypoints. In the current proof-of-concept study, we show that our approach outperforms standard keypoint detection results in all categories and in all metrics, in injury-related out-of-balance and fall situations by a large margin as well as previous methods, in performance and robustness. The Injury Ski II dataset was made publicly available, aiming to facilitate the investigation of sports accidents based on computer vision in the future.

Model-based estimation of muscle and ACL forces during turning maneuvers in alpine skiing.

In alpine skiing, estimation of the muscle forces and joint loads such as the forces in the ACL of the knee are essential to quantify the loading pattern of the skier during turning maneuvers. Since direct measurement of these forces is generally not feasible, non-invasive methods based on musculoskeletal modeling should be considered. In alpine skiing, however, muscle forces and ACL forces have not been analyzed during turning maneuvers due to the lack of three dimensional musculoskeletal models. In the present study, a three dimensional musculoskeletal skier model was successfully applied to track experimental data of a professional skier. During the turning maneuver, the primary activated muscles groups of the outside leg, bearing the highest loads, were the gluteus maximus, vastus lateralis as well as the medial and lateral hamstrings. The main function of these muscles was to generate the required hip extension and knee extension moments. The gluteus maximus was also the main contributor to the hip abduction moment when the hip was highly flexed. Furthermore, the lateral hamstrings and gluteus maximus contributed to the hip external rotation moment in addition to the quadratus femoris. Peak ACL forces reached 211 N on the outside leg with the main contribution in the frontal plane due to an external knee abduction moment. Sagittal plane contributions were low due to consistently high knee flexion (> 60[Formula: see text]), substantial co-activation of the hamstrings and the ground reaction force pushing the anteriorly inclined tibia backwards with respect to the femur. In conclusion, the present musculoskeletal simulation model provides a detailed insight into the loading of a skier during turning maneuvers that might be used to analyze appropriate training loads or injury risk factors such as the speed or turn radius of the skier, changes of the equipment or neuromuscular control parameters.

Predicting neuromuscular control patterns that minimize ACL forces during injury-prone jump-landing manoeuvres in downhill skiing using a musculoskeletal simulation model.

Competitive skiers encounter a high risk of sustaining an ACL injury during jump-landing in downhill ski racing. Facing an injury-prone landing manoeuvre, there is a lack of knowledge regarding optimum control strategies. So, the purpose of the present study was to investigate possible neuromuscular control patterns to avoid injury during injury-prone jump-landing manoeuvres. A computational approach was used to generate a series of 190 injury-prone jump-landing manoeuvres based on a 25-degree-of-freedom sagittal plane musculoskeletal skier model. Using a dynamic optimization framework, each injury-prone landing manoeuvre was resolved to identify muscle activation patterns of the lower limbs and corresponding kinematic changes that reduce peak ACL force. In the 190 injury-prone jump-landing simulations, ACL forces peaked during the first 50 ms after ground contact. Optimized muscle activation patterns, that reduced peak ACL forces, showed increased activation of the monoarticular hip flexors, ankle dorsi- and plantar flexors as well as hamstrings prior to or during the early impact phase (<50 ms). The corresponding kinematic changes were characterized by increased hip and knee flexion and less backward lean of the skier at initial ground contact and the following impact phase. Injury prevention strategies should focus on increased activation of the monoarticular hip flexors, ankle plantar flexors and rapid and increased activation of the hamstrings in combination with a flexed landing position and decreased backward lean to reduce ACL injury risk during the early impact phase (<50 ms) of jump landing.HighlightsFirst study investigating advantageous control strategies during injury-prone jump-landing manoeuvres in downhill skiing using a musculoskeletal simulation model and dynamic optimization framework.The simulation results predicted high injury risk during the first 50 ms after initial ground contact.Optimized neuromuscular control patterns showed adapted activation patterns (timing and amplitude) of muscles crossing the knee as well as the hip and ankle joints prior to and after initial ground contact, respectively.An optimized control strategy during an injury-prone landing manoeuvre was characterized kinematically by increasing hip and knee flexion and less backward lean of the skier at initial ground contact and the following impact phase.

Estimation of Joint Moments During Turning Maneuvers in Alpine Skiing Using a Three Dimensional Musculoskeletal Skier Model and a Forward Dynamics Optimization Framework.

In alpine skiing, estimation of the joint moments acting onto the skier is essential to quantify the loading of the skier during turning maneuvers. In the present study, a novel forward dynamics optimization framework is presented to estimate the joint moments acting onto the skier incorporating a three dimensional musculoskeletal model (53 kinematic degrees of freedom, 94 muscles). Kinematic data of a professional skier performing a turning maneuver were captured and used as input data to the optimization framework. In the optimization framework, the musculoskeletal model of the skier was applied to track the experimental data of a skier and to estimate the underlying joint moments of the skier at the hip, knee and ankle joints of the outside and inside leg as well as the lumbar joint. During the turning maneuver the speed of the skier was about 14 m/s with a minimum turn radius of about 16 m. The highest joint moments were observed at the lumbar joint with a maximum of 1.88 Nm/kg for lumbar extension. At the outside leg, the highest joint moments corresponded to the hip extension moment with 1.27 Nm/kg, the knee extension moment with 1.02 Nm/kg and the ankle plantarflexion moment with 0.85 Nm/kg. Compared to the classical inverse dynamics analysis, the present framework has four major advantages. First, using a forward dynamic optimization framework the underlying kinematics of the skier as well as the corresponding ground reaction forces are dynamically consistent. Second, the present framework can cope with incomplete data (i.e., without ground reaction force data). Third, the computation of the joint moments is less sensitive to errors in the measurement data. Fourth, the computed joint moments are constrained to stay within the physiological limits defined by the musculoskeletal model.

Developing a Technique for the Imaging-Based Measurement of ACL Elongation: A Proof of Principle.

Towards the goal of obtaining non-invasive biomarkers reflecting the anterior cruciate ligament's (ACL) loading capacity, this project aimed to develop a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based method facilitating the measurement of ACL elongations during the execution of knee stress tests. An MRI-compatible, computer-controlled, and pneumatically driven knee loading device was designed to perform Lachman-like tests and induce ACL strain. A human cadaveric leg was used for test purposes. During the execution of the stress tests, a triggered real-time cine MRI sequence with a temporal resolution of 10 Hz was acquired in a parasagittal plane to capture the resultant ACL elongations. To test the accuracy of these measurements, the results were compared to in situ data of ACL elongation that were acquired by measuring the length changes of a surgical wire directly sutured to the ACL's anteromedial bundle. The MRI-based ACL elongations ranged between 0.7 and 1.7 mm and agreed very well with in situ data (root mean square errors, RMSEs ≤ 0.25 mm), although peak elongation rates were underestimated by the MRI (RMSEs 0.19-0.36 mm/s). The high accuracy of elongation measurements underlines the potential of the technique to yield an imaging-based biomarker of the ACL's loading capacity.

A model-based approach to predict neuromuscular control patterns that minimize ACL forces during jump landing.

Jump landing is a common situation leading to knee injuries involving the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in sports. Although neuromuscular control is considered as a key injury risk factor, there is a lack of knowledge regarding optimum control strategies that reduce ACL forces during jump landing. In the present study, a musculoskeletal model-based computational approach is presented that allows identifying neuromuscular control patterns that minimize ACL forces during jump landing. The approach is demonstrated for a jump landing maneuver in downhill skiing, which is one out of three main injury mechanisms in competitive skiing.

Efficient trajectory optimization for curved running using a 3D musculoskeletal model with implicit dynamics.

Trajectory optimization with musculoskeletal models can be used to reconstruct measured movements and to predict changes in movements in response to environmental changes. It enables an exhaustive analysis of joint angles, joint moments, ground reaction forces, and muscle forces, among others. However, its application is still limited to simplified problems in two dimensional space or straight motions. The simulation of movements with directional changes, e.g. curved running, requires detailed three dimensional models which lead to a high-dimensional solution space. We extended a full-body three dimensional musculoskeletal model to be specialized for running with directional changes. Model dynamics were implemented implicitly and trajectory optimization problems were solved with direct collocation to enable efficient computation. Standing, straight running, and curved running were simulated starting from a random initial guess to confirm the capabilities of our model and approach: efficacy, tracking and predictive power. Altogether the simulations required 1 h 17 min and corresponded well to the reference data. The prediction of curved running using straight running as tracking data revealed the necessity of avoiding interpenetration of body segments. In summary, the proposed formulation is able to efficiently predict a new motion task while preserving dynamic consistency. Hence, labor-intensive and thus costly experimental studies could be replaced by simulations for movement analysis and virtual product design.

Metabolic cost calculations of gait using musculoskeletal energy models, a comparison study.

This paper compares predictions of metabolic energy expenditure in gait using seven metabolic energy expenditure models to assess their correlation with experimental data. Ground reaction forces, marker data, and pulmonary gas exchange data were recorded for six walking trials at combinations of two speeds, 0.8 m/s and 1.3 m/s, and three inclines, -8% (downhill), level, and 8% (uphill). The metabolic cost, calculated with the metabolic energy models was compared to the metabolic cost from the pulmonary gas exchange rates. A repeated measures correlation showed that all models correlated well with experimental data, with correlations of at least 0.9. The model by Bhargava et al. (J Biomech, 2004: 81-88) and the model by Lichtwark and Wilson (J Exp Biol, 2005: 2831-3843) had the highest correlation, 0.95. The model by Margaria (Int Z Angew Physiol Einschl Arbeitsphysiol, 1968: 339-351) predicted the increase in metabolic cost following a change in dynamics best in absolute terms.

Individual flexion stiffness of ski boots.

OBJECTIVES: Ski boots are designed to transfer forces from skier to ski. This transfer is among others affected by the flexion stiffness (FS) and so effects safety and skiing performance. Previous studies have used devices with prosthetic legs to evaluate FS, however, influencing factors like the foot and lower leg shape or individual buckle closure are not considered. The purpose of the study was to (i) develop a device to measure the individual flexion stiffness (IFS) of ski boots worn by skiers, to (ii) determine the repeatability of the measurement, and to (iii) compare the IFS with the nominal flex index of the manufacturers. METHODS: 21 subjects were tested twice to assess repeatability. The IFS of 135 subjects were measured on ski slopes and compared with the nominal flex indices. RESULTS: Repeated measurements revealed a correlation rp of 0.98 (p<0.001) and a relative standard error of SEMrel=3.0%. The correlation between IFS and nominal flex index was moderate with rs=0.64 (p<0.001). Post hoc analysis showed no statistical differences between flex index 80 and 90 (p=0.29) and flex index 100 and 110 (p=0.60). CONCLUSION: The determination of IFS was sufficiently repeatable. Considerable differences were found between IFS and the nominal flex indices of the manufacturers. The introduction of a measurement standard may improve the comparability among the manufacturers. Our method is not suitable as standardization method due to the measurements with subjects. However, the data collected may provide a valuable baseline for a future standardization.

Is it possible to voluntarily increase hamstring muscle activation during landing from a snow jump in alpine skiing? - a pilot study.

Activation of the hamstrings has been discussed as a measure for reducing strain on the ACL during jump landings in alpine skiing. The current study tested the hypothesis that hamstring and quadriceps activation can be voluntarily increased by the athlete. Specifically, two different instructions - to increase hamstring activation or to increase upper-leg co-contraction - were compared to normal landings. Eight members of the German national and junior national squad in freestyle skiing (age 19.6 ± 3.8 years; weight 66.1 ± 13.2 kg; height 172.2 ± 7.7 cm) performed 12 jump landings on a prepared run, 4 with no specific instruction, 4 with the instruction to generally activate the thigh muscles, and 4 with the instruction to specifically activate the hamstrings. Electromyographic (EMG) signals were recorded on the biceps femoris (BF), semitendinosus (ST), vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF) and vastus medialis (VM). EMG activation levels were integrated over three landing phases and analysed with a repeated measures ANOVA. The instruction produced a significant main effect in ST (p = .026), VM (p = .032) and RF (p = .001). Contrary to previous research, the current study suggests that hamstring muscle activation levels can be voluntarily increased during jump landing, particularly in co-activation with its antagonists.

Peak ACL force during jump landing in downhill skiing is less sensitive to landing height than landing position.

BACKGROUND: Competitive skiers face a high risk of sustaining an ACL injury during jump landing in downhill skiing. There is a lack of knowledge on how landing height affects this risk. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of varied landing height on peak ACL force during jump landing and to compare the effect of the landing height with the effect of the landing position varied by the trunk lean of the skier. METHODS: A 25-degree-of-freedom sagittal plane musculoskeletal model of an alpine skier, accompanied by a dynamic optimisation framework, was used to simulate jump landing manoeuvres in downhill skiing. First, a reference simulation was computed tracking experimental data of competitive downhill skier performing a jump landing manoeuvre. Second, sensitivity studies were performed computing 441 landing manoeuvres with perturbed landing height and trunk lean of the skier, and the corresponding effects on peak ACL force were determined. RESULTS: The sensitivity studies revealed that peak ACL force increased with jump height and backward lean of the skier as expected. However, peak ACL was about eight times more sensitive to the trunk lean of the skier compared with landing height. The decreased sensitivity of the landing height was based on the lower effects on the knee muscle forces and the shear component of the knee joint reaction force. CONCLUSION: Preventive measures are suggested to focus primarily on avoiding trunk backward lean of the skier, and consequently on proper jump preparation and technique, and secondarily on strategies to reduce landing height during jumps.

Does Kinesiology tape counter exercise-related impairments of balance in the elderly?

BACKGROUND: Maintaining balance is an essential requirement for the performance of daily tasks and sporting activities, particularly in older adults to prevent falls and associated injuries. Kinesiology tape has gained great popularity in sports and is frequently used as a tool for performance enhancement. However, there is little research investigating its influence on balance. RESEARCH QUESTION: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of Kinesiology tape on dynamic balance, postural stability and knee proprioception after physical activity in healthy, older adults. METHODS: Twelve physically active, healthy men aged 63-77 years performed the test on two separate days, with and without Kinesiology tape at the knee joint (prospective intervention with cross-over design). Dynamic balance during an obstacle-crossing task, postural stability in a single-leg stance test, and knee joint position sense as a measure of proprioception were examined before and after 30 min of downhill walking on a treadmill. The influences of taping condition and physical activity on all parameters were statistically tested using factorial ANOVAs. RESULTS: Factorial ANOVA revealed significant time × taping condition interaction effects on all performance parameters (p < 0.05), indicating that the exercise-related changes in dynamic balance, postural stability and knee proprioception differed between the two taping conditions. The deterioration of performance was always greater when no tape was used. SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrated that physical exercise significantly deteriorated dynamic balance, postural stability and knee proprioception in older men. These effects can be attenuated through the usage of Kinesiology tape. By preventing exercise-related impairments of balance, Kinesiology tape might help reduce the risk of sports-associated falls and associated injuries.

Effect of ski boot rear stiffness (SBRS) on maximal ACL force during injury prone landing movements in alpine ski racing: A study with a musculoskeletal simulation model.

A common anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury situation in alpine ski racing is landing back-weighted after a jump. Simulated back-weighted landing situations showed higher ACL-injury risk for increasing ski boot rear stiffness (SBRS) without considering muscles. It is well known that muscle forces affect ACL tensile forces during landing. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different SBRS on the maximal ACL tensile forces during injury prone landings considering muscle forces by a two-dimensional musculoskeletal simulation model. Injury prone situations for ACL-injuries were generated by the musculoskeletal simulation model using measured kinematics of a non-injury situation and the method of Monte Carlo simulation. Subsequently, the SBRS was varied for injury prone landings. The maximal ACL tensile forces and contributing factors to the ACL forces were compared for the different SBRS. In the injury prone landings the maximal ACL tensile forces increased with increasing SBRS. It was found that the higher maximal ACL force was caused by higher forces acting on the tibia by the boot and by higher quadriceps muscle forces both due to the higher SBRS. Practical experience suggested that the reduction of SBRS is not accepted by ski racers due to performance reasons. Thus, preventive measures may concentrate on the reduction of the quadriceps muscle force during impact.

Effects of a 12-day maximal shuttle-run shock microcycle in hypoxia on soccer specific performance and oxidative stress.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a maximal shuttle-run shock microcycle in hypoxia on repeated sprint ability (RSA, 6 × 40-m (6 × 20 m back and forth, 20" rest in between)), Yo-Yo-intermittent-recovery (YYIR) test performance, and redox-status. Fourteen soccer players (age: 23.9 ± 2.1 years), randomly assigned to hypoxia (∼ 3300 m) or normoxia training, performed 8 maximal shuttle-run training sessions within 12 days. YYIR test performance and RSA fatigue-slope improved independently of the hypoxia stimulus (p < 0.05). Training reduced the oxidative stress level (-7.9%, p < 0.05), and the reduction was associated with performance improvements (r = 0.761, ΔRSA; r = -0.575, ΔYYIR, p < 0.05).

A pilot study of the effect of Kinesiology tape on knee proprioception after physical activity in healthy women.

OBJECTIVES: Kinesiology tape has gained significant popularity in recent years and is widely used as an adjunct for treatment and prevention of musculoskeletal injuries. However, evidence regarding its influence on knee proprioception is scarce. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of Kinesiology tape on knee proprioception after physical activity in healthy women. It was hypothesized that Kinesiology tape enhances knee proprioception. DESIGN: Longitudinal analysis, pretest-posttest design. METHODS: Twelve young women with healthy knees were tested for knee proprioception without the use of Kinesiology tape and wearing Kinesiology tape at the knee. The joint position sense was measured at the start and after a 30-min uphill walking protocol on a treadmill. Outcome was the knee angle deviation. RESULTS: No significant difference of proprioceptive performance between the application with Kinesiology tape and without Kinesiology tape was found after uphill walking (p > 0.05). However, when the participants' results for knee angle deviation were graded into good (< 6.1°) and poor ( > 6.1°), Kinesiology tape significantly enhanced those with poor proprioceptive ability after uphill walking, compared to the untaped knee (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: This study has shown that the application of Kinesiology tape did not improve knee proprioception in a group of healthy young women. However, it also has demonstrated that Kinesiology tape provided significant proprioceptive enhancement at the knee joint after uphill walking in healthy women with poor proprioceptive ability. This may support its use in sports medicine for preventing knee injuries.

The Effect of Uphill and Downhill Walking on Joint-Position Sense: A Study on Healthy Knees.

CONTEXT: During sport activity, knee proprioception might worsen. This decrease in proprioceptive acuity negatively influences motor control and therefore may increase injury risk. Hiking is a common activity characterized by a higher-intensity-exercise phase during uphill walking and a lower-intensity-exercise phase during downhill walking. Pain and injuries are reported in hiking, especially during the downhill phase. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of a hiking-fatigue protocol on joint-position sense. DESIGN: Repeated measures. SETTING: University research laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: 24 nonprofessional sportswomen without knee injuries. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Joint-position sense was tested at the beginning, after 30 min uphill walking, and after 30 min downhill walking on a treadmill (continuous protocol). RESULTS: After downhill walking, joint-position sense was significantly worse than in the test at the beginning (P = .035, α = .05). After uphill walking, no differences were observed in comparison with the test at the beginning (P = .172, α = .05) or the test after downhill walking (P = .165, α = .05). CONCLUSION: Downhill walking causes impairment in knee-joint-position sense. Considering these results, injury-prevention protocols for hiking should focus on maintaining and improving knee proprioception during the descending phase.

Performance limitation and the role of core temperature when wearing light-weight workwear under moderate thermal conditions.

The objective of this investigation was to achieve an understanding about the relationship between heat stress and performance limitation when wearing a two-layerfire-resistant light-weight workwear (full-clothed ensemble) compared to an one-layer short sports gear (semi-clothed ensemble) in an exhaustive, stressful situation under moderate thermal condition (25°C). Ten well trained male subjects performed a strenuous walking protocol with both clothing ensembles until exhaustion occurred in a climatic chamber. Wearing workwear reduced the endurance performance by 10% (p=0.007) and the evaporation by 21% (p=0.003), caused a more pronounced rise in core temperature during submaximal walking (0.7±0.3 vs. 1.2±0.4°C; p≤0.001) and from start till exhaustion (1.4±0.3 vs. 1.8±0.5°C; p=0.008), accelerated sweat loss (13±2 vs. 15±3gmin(-1); p=0.007), and led to a significant higher heart rate at the end of cool down (103±6 vs. 111±7bpm; p=0.004). Correlation analysis revealed that core temperature development during submaximal walking and evaporation may play important roles for endurance performance. However, a critical core temperature of 40°C, which is stated to be a crucial factor for central fatigue and performance limitation, was not reached either with the semi-clothed or the full-clothed ensemble (38.3±0.4 vs. 38.4±0.5°C). Additionally, perceived exertion did not increase to a higher extent parallel with the rising core temperature with workwear which would substantiate the critical core temperature theory. In conclusion, increased heat stress led to cardiovascular exercise limitation rather than central fatigue.

Resting arterial oxygen saturation and breathing frequency as predictors for acute mountain sickness development: a prospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The study evaluated the predictive value of arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) after 30-min hypoxic exposure on subsequent development of acute mountain sickness (AMS) and tested if additional resting cardio-respiratory measurements improve AMS prognosis. METHODS: Fifty-five persons were exposed to a simulated altitude of 4,500 m (normobaric hypoxia, FiO2 = 12.5%). Cardio-respiratory parameters, SaO2, blood lactate, and blood pressure were measured after 30 min of exposure. AMS symptoms were recorded after 3, 6, 9, and 12 h (Lake-Louise Score). Three models, based on previously published regression equations for altitude-dependent SaO2 values of AMS-susceptible (SaO2-suscept = 98.34 - 2.72 ∗ alt - 0.35 ∗ alt(2)) and AMS-resistant (SaO2-resist = 96.51 + 0.68 ∗ alt - 0.80 ∗ alt(2)) persons, were applied to predict AMS. Additionally, multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to test if additional resting measurements improve AMS prediction. RESULTS: The three models correctly predicted AMS development in 62%, 67%, and 69% of the cases. No model showed combined sensitivity and specificity >80%. Sequential logistic regression revealed that the inclusion of tidal volume or breathing frequency in addition to SaO2 improved overall AMS prediction, resulting in 78% and 80% correct AMS prediction, respectively. CONCLUSION: Non-invasive measurements of SaO2 after 30-min hypoxic exposure are easy to perform and have the potential to detect AMS-susceptible individuals with a sufficient sensitivity. The additional determination of breathing frequency can improve success in AMS prediction.

Effects of individual aerobic performance on finish time in mountain running.

It was hypothesized that for each mountain running competition, there is a certain individual performance level below which running times increase dramatically. The running times of 869 finishers of 3 international mountain running competitions have been analysed. A hyperbolic association was demonstrated between finish times in mountain running competitions and individual performance at the anaerobic threshold (VO2AT(Race)). Due to the non-linear association, there is an increasing effect on both the finish time and the change of finish time with decreasing aerobic performance. In all three competitions, the change of finish time is about 7 times more pronounced in mountain runners with the lowest VO2ATL,, compared to those with the highest values of VO2AT(Race). Both athletes and organizers should keep in mind these effects of decreasing aerobic performance on running times and potentially associated risks.