How should we treat acute kidney injury caused by renal congestion?

Decreased kidney function is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events and mortality, and heart failure (HF) is a wellknown risk factor for renal dysfunction. Acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with HF often is attributed to prerenal factors, such as renal hypoperfusion and ischemia as a result of decreased cardiac output. Another such factor is reduction of absolute or relative circulating blood volume, with the decrease in renal blood flow leading to renal hypoxia followed by a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate. However, renal congestion is increasingly being recognized as a potential cause of AKI in patients with HF. Increased central venous pressure and renal venous pressure lead to increased renal interstitial hydrostatic pressure and a reduction of the glomerular filtration rate. Both decreased kidney function and renal congestion have been shown to be important prognostic factors of HF, and adequate control of congestion is important for improving kidney function. Loop and thiazide diuretics are recommended as standard therapies to reduce volume overload. However, these agents are associated with worsening renal function even though they are effective for improving congestive symptoms. There is growing interest in tolvaptan, which can improve renal congestion by increasing excretion of free water and decreasing the required dose of loop diuretic, thereby improving kidney function. This review summarizes renal hemodynamics, the pathogenesis of AKI due to renal ischemia and renal congestion, and diagnosis and treatment options for renal congestion.

Identification of Clock Genes Related to Hypertension in Kidney From Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats.

BACKGROUND: There is a diurnal variation in the blood pressure fluctuation of hypertension, and blood pressure fluctuation abnormality is considered to be an independent risk factor for organ damage including cardiovascular complications. In the current study, we tried to identify molecules responsible for blood pressure circadian rhythm formation under the control of the kidney biological clock in hypertension. METHODS: DNA microarray analysis was performed in kidneys from 5-week-old spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs)/Izm, stroke-prone SHR rats (SHRSP)/Izm, and Wistar Kyoto (WKY)/Izm rats. To detect variation, mouse tubular epithelial cells (TCMK-1) were stimulated with dexamethasone. We performed immunostaining and western blot analysis in the renal medulla of kidney from 5-week-old WKY rats and SHRs. RESULTS: We extracted 1,032 genes with E-box, a binding sequence for BMAL1 and CLOCK using a Gene Set Enrichment Analysis. In a microarray analysis, we identified 12 genes increased as more than 2-fold in the kidneys of SHRs and SHRSP in comparison to WKY rats. In a periodic regression analysis, phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate amidotransferase (Ppat) and fragile X mental retardation, autosomal homolog 1 (Fxr1) showed circadian rhythm. Immunocytochemistry revealed PPAT-positivity in nuclei and cytoplasm in the tubules, and FXR1-positivity in the cytoplasm of TCMK-1. In 5-week-old WKY rat and SHR kidneys, PPAT was localized in the nucleus and cytoplasm of the proximal and distal tubules, and FXR1 was localized to the cytoplasm of the proximal and distal tubules. CONCLUSIONS: PPAT and FXR1 are pivotal molecules in the control of blood pressure circadian rhythm by the kidney in hypertension.

Plasma C1q/TNF-related protein 9: a promising biomarker for diabetic renal vascular injury.

BACKGROUND: Adipocytokines are associated with the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). METHODS: We analyzed the relationship between levels of the plasma C1q/tumor necrosis factor-related protein 9 (CTRP9) and other adipocytokines or the endothelial function in patients with T2DM, and analyzed their trending manner. RESULTS: CTRP9 was detected in plasma from 14 out of a total of 28 patients. The values were not normally distributed. In comparing between groups in which CTRP9 was or was not detected, there were statistically significant differences in the high molecular weight adiponectin (HAN) and the urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR). This indicates that both CTRP9 and HAN reflect the pathophysiology of renal involvement in T2DM. HAN correlated with Body Mass Index, ACR, and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance. However, CTRP9 did not correlate with HAN or any other parameters. CONCLUSIONS: CTRP9 independently trends in a different manner from HAN, and may reflect diabetic renal vascular risk in association with atherosclerosis and abnormal glucose metabolism besides of impaired vaso-relaxation in patients with T2DM.

Proximal tubule morphology in rats with renal congestion: a study involving the in vivo cryotechnique.

The present study aimed to examine the changes induced in proximal tubules by renal congestion using the in vivo cryotechnique (IVCT). Twelve male Wistar rats were divided into four equal groups: group 1 (the control); groups 2 and 3, which were subjected to 2 and 5 min of congestion, respectively; and group 4, which was subjected to 5 min of congestion followed by 10 min of recirculation. Under anesthesia, renal congestion was induced in the bilateral kidneys by ligating the inferior vena cava just above the branching renal veins. The left kidneys, which were subjected to the IVCT, were then compared with the right kidneys, which underwent a conventional fixation method. Among the left kidneys, the proximal tubules in group 1 consisted of cuboidal cells and had open lumina. In the congestive groups, the diameters of the proximal tubules were increased, and their lumina were obstructed by swollen cells and ischemia-associated cell debris. In group 4, the proximal tubules were still dilated, as seen in the congestive groups; however, the swollen cells had recovered their cuboidal form, and the cell debris had disappeared from the tubules' lumina. The present study demonstrated the in vivo morphology of proximal tubules in living rats subjected to congestion, which was unclear using conventional fixation methods.

Secondary focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in an adolescent born with a very low birth weight.

A 17-year-old man presented with a decreased renal function (creatinine clearance 66.0 ml/min/1.73 m2) and proteinuria (1.25 g/24 hrs). He was born weighing 1,065 g 26 weeks of pregnancy. He was mildly overweight (BMI 26.9 kg/m2) due to an increased weight gain (10 kg) over the past year. Renal biopsy showed perihilar sclerosing lesions in three of eleven glomeruli, low glomerular density, enlarged glomeruli, and limited fusions of foot processes, thus indicating secondary focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). We speculated that the patient's overweight status may have caused a worsening of glomerular hyperfiltration due to the fewer number of nephrons leading to the development of secondary FSGS.

Diminished complement-activating capacity through the classical pathway in sera from type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Complement-activating capacity through the classical pathway in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was examined in the context of free sialic acid as a potential modulator of complement activation. Complement-activating capacity was investigated in an incubation study of heat-aggregated IgG (HAG) and sera from 42 T2DM patients. The study demonstrated diminished in-vitro complement-activating capacity through the classical pathway in T2DM. Various doses of N-acetyl neuraminic acid (NANA) were incubated with normal serum and HAG. Complement activation product levels decreased in a NANA dose-dependent manner. Isoelectrofocusing analysis in a mixture of NANA and purified C3 indicated that C3 changed pI dose-dependently, resulting in the downregulation of complement activation. The serum levels of free sialic acid were determined by fluorometric assay in the 42 T2DM sera samples, and were significantly increased in patients with diminished complement activation. These data indicate that increased serum sialic acid may become a candidate for decreasing complement-activating capacity in T2DM.

Complement-mediated chronic inflammation is associated with diabetic microvascular complication.

BACKGROUND: Chronic inflammation is characteristic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Obesity-activated adipocytes release adipocytokines, which induce the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, resulting in vascular endothelial dysfunction and organ injury. C3a is a candidate to induce tissue inflammation. METHODS: We investigated the association between diabetic microangiopathy and complement-mediated inflammation in 32 obese T2DM patients and 32 normal donors. Plasma levels of complement components and their activation intermediates were examined and related to the level of complication. An incubation study of post-prandial serum was carried out to measure the in vitro production of acylation stimulating protein (ASP/C3a desArg) by chylomicron. RESULTS: Plasma levels of C3, C4, factor B, iC3b, Bb, and ASP were significantly increased in T2DM patients. Levels of C4d and membrane attack complex (C5b-9) were not significantly elevated. The activation rate of these factors indicated that only the early phase of alternative complement pathway was excessively activated. A statistical study revealed close correlation between ASP, body mass index, and highly sensitive C-reactive protein. Plasma ASP was significantly increased in the macroalbuminuric and proliferative retinopathy patient groups. An incubation study revealed that ASP was produced after the in vitro incubation of post-prandial serum from a T2DM patient with hyperchylomicronaemia. CONCLUSIONS: Activation of the alternative complement pathway occurs in obese T2DM patients and is enhanced in the post-prandial hyperchylomicronic condition, which induces overproduction of ASP and C3a-mediated tissue inflammation. Therefore, complement-mediated inflammation may contribute to the acceleration of diabetic microangiopathy in addition to the development of macroangiopathy.

Effects of cyclosporine on bone mineral density in patients with glucocorticoid-dependent nephrotic syndrome in remission.

PURPOSE: Cyclosporine (CsA) is often prescribed to patients with glucocorticoid (GC)-dependent nephrotic syndrome. Although it is well known that long-term administration of GC causes osteoporosis, the effects of CsA on bone metabolism are not fully established. Therefore, we examined the effects of CsA on bone metabolism in patients with GC-dependent nephrotic syndrome in remission. METHODS: We followed 23 patients treated with prednisolone alone (GC alone group) and 17 patients treated with CsA in combination with prednisolone (GC + CsA group). Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and biochemical markers of bone metabolism were simultaneously measured in serum and urine samples. RESULTS: BMD decreased significantly in the GC group from 752 to 623 mg/cm(2) but non-significantly in the GC + CsA group from 751 to 684 mg/cm(2). Although the cumulative dose of GC increased in both groups, there were no significant differences in biochemical markers at either the start or the end of the study. Vertebrate bone fracture and other side effects associated with CsA treatment did not occur in our study. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that CsA does not accelerate GC-induced osteoporosis in patients with nephrotic syndrome. We conclude that CsA is appropriate for the treatment of GC-dependent nephrotic syndrome, because it does not adversely affect bone metabolism and has favorable glomerular effects.

A case of ANCA-associated vasculitis with glomerular eosinophilic infiltration: a possible pathogenic implication.

We present a 58-year-old male patient with myeloperoxidase antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. He failed to fulfill the common American College of Rheumatology criteria for eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis and was tentatively diagnosed with microscopic polyangiitis. Kidney biopsy showed pauci-immune crescentic necrotizing glomerulonephritis with neutrophilic and eosinophilic infiltration. Previous reports implicate eosinophils in the pathogenesis of this disease. Therefore, this case suggests that infiltrated eosinophils as well as neutrophils might play roles in the development of tissue injury in systemic vasculitis.

Oligomeganephronia in an adult without end stage renal failure.

A 23 year-old male was investigated for hypertension, moderate renal insufficiency, persistent proteinuria and bilateral small kidneys. The renal pathological features were diagnostic with greatly enlarged glomeruli (the mean diameter was 325 µm, which was approximately two times larger than normal glomeruli), indicating oligomeganephronia (OMN). He also showed malrotated kidneys, expanded extrarenal pelvis, and hearing loss. Thus, these clinical and pathological features aided in diagnosing the renal disorder as OMN. This is a very rare case of OMN, which did not advance to end-stage renal failure as an adult. We believe that multiple anomalies might be suggestive findings of OMN in patients, such as renal insufficiency, persistent proteinuria, and bilateral small kidneys.