ABSTRACT
Androgens have key roles in normal physiology and in male sexual differentiation as well as in pathological conditions such as prostate cancer. Androgens act through the androgen receptor (AR), which is a ligand-modulated transcription factor. Antiandrogens block AR function and are widely used in disease states, but little is known about their mechanism of action in vivo. Here, we describe a rapid differential interaction of AR with target genomic sites in living cells in the presence of agonists which coincides with the recruitment of BRM ATPase complex and chromatin remodeling, resulting in transcriptional activation. In contrast, the interaction of antagonist-bound or mutant AR with its target was found to be kinetically different: it was dramatically faster, occurred without chromatin remodeling, and resulted in the lack of transcriptional inhibition. Fluorescent resonance energy transfer analysis of wild-type AR and a transcriptionally compromised mutant at the hormone response element showed that intramolecular interactions between the N and C termini of AR play a key functional role in vivo compared to intermolecular interactions between two neighboring ARs. These data provide a kinetic and mechanistic basis for regulation of gene expression by androgens and antiandrogens in living cells.
Subject(s)
Receptors, Androgen/metabolism , Response Elements/physiology , Adenocarcinoma/pathology , Androgen Antagonists/pharmacology , Androgens/pharmacology , Anilides/pharmacology , Animals , Cell Line, Tumor , Chromatin Assembly and Disassembly , Cyproterone Acetate/pharmacology , Dihydrotestosterone/pharmacology , Female , Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching , Flutamide/analogs & derivatives , Flutamide/pharmacology , Genes, Reporter , Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism , In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence , Ligands , Luciferases/metabolism , Mammary Neoplasms, Animal/pathology , Mammary Tumor Virus, Mouse/genetics , Metribolone/pharmacology , Mice , Microscopy, Video , Mifepristone/pharmacology , Models, Biological , Nitriles/pharmacology , Plasmids , Promoter Regions, Genetic , Receptors, Androgen/drug effects , Testosterone/pharmacology , Tosyl Compounds/pharmacology , Transcription, GeneticABSTRACT
Although histone deacetylases (HDACs) are generally viewed as corepressors, we show that HDAC1 serves as a coactivator for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Furthermore, a subfraction of cellular HDAC1 is acetylated after association with the GR, and this acetylation event correlates with a decrease in promoter activity. HDAC1 in repressed chromatin is highly acetylated, while the deacetylase found on transcriptionally active chromatin manifests a low level of acetylation. Acetylation of purified HDAC1 inactivates its deacetylase activity, and mutation of the critical acetylation sites abrogates HDAC1 function in vivo. We propose that hormone activation of the receptor leads to progressive acetylation of HDAC1 in vivo, which in turn inhibits the deacetylase activity of the enzyme and prevents a deacetylation event that is required for promoter activation. These findings indicate that HDAC1 is required for the induction of some genes by the GR, and this activator function is dynamically modulated by acetylation.
