Role of phosphorylation of Cdc20 in the regulation of the action of APC/C in mitosis.

The ubiquitin ligase APC/C (anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome) is essential for the control of mitosis, and its activity is subject to tight regulation. In early mitosis, APC/C is inhibited by the mitotic checkpoint system, but subsequently it regains activity and promotes metaphase-anaphase transition by targeting cyclin B and securin for degradation. The phosphorylation of APC/C by the mitotic protein kinase Cdk1-cyclin B facilitates its interaction with its coactivator Cdc20, while the phosphorylation of Cdc20 inhibits its binding to APC/C. This raises the question of how Cdc20 binds to APC/C under conditions of high Cdk1 activity. It seemed possible that the opposing action of protein phosphatases produces a fraction of unphosphorylated Cdc20 that binds to APC/C. We found, however, that while inhibitors of protein phosphatases PP2A and PP1 increased the overall phosphorylation of Cdc20 in anaphase extracts from Xenopus eggs, they did not decrease the levels of Cdc20 bound to APC/C. Searching for alternative mechanisms, we found that following the binding of Cdc20 to APC/C, it became significantly protected against phosphorylation by Cdk1. Protection was mainly at threonine sites at the N-terminal region of Cdc20, known to affect its interaction with APC/C. A model is proposed according to which a pool of unphosphorylated Cdc20, originating from initial stages of mitosis or from phosphatase action, combines with phosphorylated APC/C and thus becomes stabilized against further phosphorylation, possibly by steric hindrance of Cdk1 action. This pool of APCCdc20 appears to be required for the regulation of APC/C activity at different stages of mitosis.

Role of ubiquitin-protein ligase UBR5 in the disassembly of mitotic checkpoint complexes.

The mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint system ensures accurate chromosome segregation in mitosis by preventing the onset of anaphase until correct bipolar attachment of sister chromosomes to the mitotic spindle is attained. It acts by promoting the assembly of a mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), composed of mitotic checkpoint proteins BubR1, Bub3, Mad2, and Cdc20. MCC binds to and inhibits the action of ubiquitin ligase APC/C (anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome), which targets for degradation regulators of anaphase initiation. When the checkpoint system is satisfied, MCCs are disassembled, allowing the recovery of APC/C activity and initiation of anaphase. Many of the pathways of the disassembly of the different MCCs have been elucidated, but the mode of their regulation remained unknown. We find that UBR5 (ubiquitin-protein ligase N-recognin 5) is associated with the APC/C*MCC complex immunopurified from extracts of nocodazole-arrested HeLa cells. UBR5 binds to mitotic checkpoint proteins BubR1, Bub3, and Cdc20 and promotes their polyubiquitylation in vitro. The dissociation of a Bub3*BubR1 subcomplex of MCC is stimulated by UBR5-dependent ubiquitylation, as suggested by observations that this process in mitotic extracts requires UBR5 and α-ß bond hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate. Furthermore, a system reconstituted from purified recombinant components carries out UBR5- and ubiquitylation-dependent dissociation of Bub3*BubR1. Immunodepletion of UBR5 from mitotic extracts slows down the release of MCC components from APC/C and prolongs the lag period in the recovery of APC/C activity in the exit from mitotic checkpoint arrest. We suggest that UBR5 may be involved in the regulation of the inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint.

Role of Polo-like kinase 1 in the regulation of the action of p31comet in the disassembly of mitotic checkpoint complexes.

The Mad2-binding protein p31comet has important roles in the inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint system, which delays anaphase until chromosomes attach correctly to the mitotic spindle. The activation of the checkpoint promotes the assembly of a Mitotic Checkpoint Complex (MCC), which inhibits the action of the ubiquitin ligase APC/C (Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome) to degrade inhibitors of anaphase initiation. The inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint requires the disassembly of MCC. p31comet promotes the disassembly of mitotic checkpoint complexes by liberating their Mad2 component in a joint action with the ATPase TRIP13. Here, we investigated the regulation of p31comet action. The release of Mad2 from checkpoint complexes in extracts from nocodazole-arrested HeLa cells was inhibited by Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), as suggested by the effects of selective inhibitors of Plk1. Purified Plk1 bound to p31comet and phosphorylated it, resulting in the suppression of its activity (with TRIP13) to disassemble checkpoint complexes. Plk1 phosphorylated p31comet on S102, as suggested by the prevention of the phosphorylation of this residue in checkpoint extracts by the selective Plk1 inhibitor BI-2536 and by the phosphorylation of S102 with purified Plk1. An S102A mutant of p31comet had a greatly decreased sensitivity to inhibition by Plk1 of its action to disassemble mitotic checkpoint complexes. We propose that the phosphorylation of p31comet by Plk1 prevents a futile cycle of MCC assembly and disassembly during the active mitotic checkpoint.

Role of ubiquitylation of components of mitotic checkpoint complex in their dissociation from anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome.

The mitotic checkpoint system ensures the fidelity of chromosome segregation in mitosis by preventing premature initiation of anaphase until correct bipolar attachment of chromosomes to the mitotic spindle is reached. It promotes the assembly of a mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), composed of BubR1, Bub3, Cdc20, and Mad2, which inhibits the activity of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) ubiquitin ligase. When the checkpoint is satisfied, anaphase is initiated by the disassembly of MCC. Previous studies indicated that the dissociation of APC/C-bound MCC requires ubiquitylation and suggested that the target of ubiquitylation is the Cdc20 component of MCC. However, it remained unknown how ubiquitylation causes the release of MCC from APC/C and its disassembly and whether ubiquitylation of additional proteins is involved in this process. We find that ubiquitylation causes the dissociation of BubR1 from Cdc20 in MCC and suggest that this may lead to the release of MCC components from APC/C. BubR1 in MCC is ubiquitylated by APC/C, although to a lesser degree than Cdc20. The extent of BubR1 ubiquitylation was markedly increased in recombinant MCC that contained a lysine-less mutant of Cdc20. Mutation of lysine residues to arginines in the N-terminal region of BubR1 partially inhibited its ubiquitylation and slowed down the release of MCC from APC/C, provided that Cdc20 ubiquitylation was also blocked. It is suggested that ubiquitylation of both Cdc20 and BubR1 may be involved in their dissociation from each other and in the release of MCC components from APC/C.

Role of CCT chaperonin in the disassembly of mitotic checkpoint complexes.

The mitotic checkpoint system prevents premature separation of sister chromatids in mitosis and thus ensures the fidelity of chromosome segregation. When this checkpoint is active, a mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), composed of the checkpoint proteins Mad2, BubR1, Bub3, and Cdc20, is assembled. MCC inhibits the ubiquitin ligase anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), whose action is necessary for anaphase initiation. When the checkpoint signal is turned off, MCC is disassembled, a process required for exit from checkpoint-arrested state. Different moieties of MCC are disassembled by different ATP-requiring processes. Previous work showed that Mad2 is released from MCC by the joint action of the TRIP13 AAA-ATPase and the Mad2-binding protein p31comet Now we have isolated from extracts of HeLa cells an ATP-dependent factor that releases Cdc20 from MCC and identified it as chaperonin containing TCP1 or TCP1-Ring complex (CCT/TRiC chaperonin), a complex known to function in protein folding. Bacterially expressed CCT5 chaperonin subunits, which form biologically active homooligomers [Sergeeva, et al. (2013) J Biol Chem 288(24):17734-17744], also promote the disassembly of MCC. CCT chaperonin further binds and disassembles subcomplexes of MCC that lack Mad2. Thus, the combined action of CCT chaperonin with that of TRIP13 ATPase promotes the complete disassembly of MCC, necessary for the inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint.

Intermediates in the assembly of mitotic checkpoint complexes and their role in the regulation of the anaphase-promoting complex.

The mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint system prevents premature separation of sister chromatids in mitosis and thus ensures the fidelity of chromosome segregation. Kinetochores that are not attached properly to the mitotic spindle produce an inhibitory signal that prevents progression into anaphase. The checkpoint system acts on the Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) ubiquitin ligase, which targets for degradation inhibitors of anaphase initiation. APC/C is inhibited by the Mitotic Checkpoint Complex (MCC), which assembles when the checkpoint is activated. MCC is composed of the checkpoint proteins BubR1, Bub3, and Mad2, associated with the APC/C coactivator Cdc20. The intermediary processes in the assembly of MCC are not sufficiently understood. It is also not clear whether or not some subcomplexes of MCC inhibit the APC/C and whether Mad2 is required only for MCC assembly and not for its action on the APC/C. We used purified subcomplexes of mitotic checkpoint proteins to examine these problems. Our results do not support a model in which Mad2 catalytically generates a Mad2-free APC/C inhibitor. We also found that the release of Mad2 from MCC caused a marked (although not complete) decrease in inhibitory action, suggesting a role of Mad2 in MCC for APC/C inhibition. A previously unknown species of MCC, which consists of Mad2, BubR1, and two molecules of Cdc20, contributes to the inhibition of APC/C by the mitotic checkpoint system.

Mode of interaction of TRIP13 AAA-ATPase with the Mad2-binding protein p31comet and with mitotic checkpoint complexes.

The AAA-ATPase thyroid hormone receptor interacting protein 13 (TRIP13), jointly with the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet), promotes the inactivation of the mitotic (spindle assembly) checkpoint by disassembling the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC). This checkpoint system ensures the accuracy of chromosome segregation by delaying anaphase until correct bipolar attachment of chromatids to the mitotic spindle is achieved. MCC inhibits the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a ubiquitin ligase that targets for degradation securin, an inhibitor of anaphase initiation. MCC is composed of the checkpoint proteins Mad2, BubR1, and Bub3, in association with the APC/C activator Cdc20. The assembly of MCC in active checkpoint is initiated by the conversion of Mad2 from an open (O-Mad2) to a closed (C-Mad2) conformation, which then binds tightly to Cdc20. Conversely, the disassembly of MCC that takes place when the checkpoint is turned off involves the conversion of C-Mad2 back to O-Mad2. Previously, we found that the latter process is mediated by TRIP13 together with p31(comet), but the mode of their interaction remained unknown. Here, we report that the oligomeric form of TRIP13 binds both p31(comet) and MCC. Furthermore, p31(comet) and checkpoint complexes mutually promote the binding of each other to oligomeric TRIP13. We propose that p31(comet) bound to C-Mad2-containing checkpoint complex is the substrate for the ATPase and that the substrate-binding site of TRIP13 is composed of subsites specific for p31(comet) and C-Mad2-containing complex. The simultaneous occupancy of both subsites is required for high-affinity binding to TRIP13.

Disassembly of mitotic checkpoint complexes by the joint action of the AAA-ATPase TRIP13 and p31(comet).

The mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint system delays anaphase until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle. When the checkpoint is active, a Mitotic Checkpoint Complex (MCC) assembles and inhibits the ubiquitin ligase Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C). MCC is composed of the checkpoint proteins Mad2, BubR1, and Bub3 associated with the APC/C activator Cdc20. When the checkpoint signal is turned off, MCC is disassembled and the checkpoint is inactivated. The mechanisms of the disassembly of MCC are not sufficiently understood. We have previously observed that ATP hydrolysis is required for the action of the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet) to disassemble MCC. We now show that HeLa cell extracts contain a factor that promotes ATP- and p31(comet)-dependent disassembly of a Cdc20-Mad2 subcomplex and identify it as Thyroid Receptor Interacting Protein 13 (TRIP13), an AAA-ATPase known to interact with p31(comet). The joint action of TRIP13 and p31(comet) also promotes the release of Mad2 from MCC, participates in the complete disassembly of MCC and abrogates checkpoint inhibition of APC/C. We propose that TRIP13 plays centrally important roles in the sequence of events leading to MCC disassembly and checkpoint inactivation.

Roles of different pools of the mitotic checkpoint complex and the mechanisms of their disassembly.

The mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint system prevents premature separation of sister chromatids in mitosis. When the checkpoint is turned on, the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) inhibits the ubiquitin ligase anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). MCC is composed of the checkpoint proteins BubR1, Bub3, and Mad2 associated with the APC/C activator Cdc20. The mechanisms of the assembly of MCC when the checkpoint is turned on, and of its disassembly when the checkpoint is inactivated, are not sufficiently understood. Previous reports indicated that APC/C-mediated polyubiquitylation of Cdc20 in MCC is required for the dissociation of APC/C-associated MCC, but not of free MCC. The pool of free MCC is disassembled by an ATP-dependent process stimulated by the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet). It remained unknown whether free MCC is the precursor or the dissociation product of APC/C-bound MCC. By characterizing the mechanisms of the disassembly of APC/C-bound MCC in a purified system, we find that it cannot be the source of free MCC, because it is bound at high affinity and is released only in ubiquitylated or partially disassembled forms. By the use of a cell-free system from Xenopus eggs that reproduces the mitotic checkpoint, we show that MCC can be assembled in the absence of APC/C in a checkpoint-dependent manner. We propose that when the checkpoint is turned on, free MCC is the precursor of APC/C-bound MCC. When the mitotic checkpoint is extinguished, both APC/C-bound and free MCC pools have to be disassembled to release APC/C from inhibition.

Role of phosphorylation of Cdc20 in p31(comet)-stimulated disassembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex.

The mitotic checkpoint system delays anaphase until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle. When the checkpoint is turned on, it promotes the formation of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), which inhibits the ubiquitin ligase anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). MCC is composed of the checkpoint proteins BubR1, Bub3, and Mad2 bound to the APC/C activator Cdc20. When the checkpoint is satisfied, MCC is disassembled and APC/C becomes active. Previous studies have shown that the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet) promotes the dissociation of Cdc20 from BubR1 in MCC in a process that requires ATP. We now show that a part of MCC dissociation is blocked by inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) and that purified Cdk1-cyclin B stimulates this process. The mutation of all eight potential Cdk phosphorylation sites of Cdc20 partially prevented its release from BubR1. Furthermore, p31(comet) stimulated Cdk-catalyzed phosphorylation of Cdc20 in MCC. It is suggested that the binding of p31(comet) to Mad2 in MCC may trigger a conformational change in Cdc20 that facilitates its phosphorylation by Cdk, and that the latter process may promote its dissociation from BubR1.

Regulation of the action of early mitotic inhibitor 1 on the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome by cyclin-dependent kinases.

Cell cycle regulation is characterized by alternating activities of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and of the ubiquitin ligase anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). During S-phase APC/C is inhibited by early mitotic inhibitor 1 (Emi1) to allow the accumulation of cyclins A and B and to prevent re-replication. Emi1 is degraded at prophase by a Plk1-dependent pathway. Recent studies in which the degradation pathway of Emi1 was disrupted have shown that APC/C is activated at mitotic entry despite stabilization of Emi1. These results suggested the possibility of additional mechanisms other than degradation of Emi1, which release APC/C from inhibition by Emi1 upon entry into mitosis. In this study we report one such mechanism, by which the ability of Emi1 to inhibit APC/C is negatively regulated by CDKs. We show that in Plk1-inhibited cells Emi1 is stabilized and phosphorylated, that Emi1 is phosphorylated by CDKs in mitotic but not S-phase cell extracts, and that Emi1 phosphorylation by mitotic cell extracts or purified CDKs markedly reduces the ability of Emi1 to bind and to inhibit APC/C. Finally, we show that the addition of extracts from S-phase cells to extracts from mitotic cells protects Emi1 from CDK-mediated inactivation.

p31comet Promotes disassembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex in an ATP-dependent process.

Accurate segregation of chromosomes in mitosis is ensured by a surveillance mechanism called the mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint. It prevents sister chromatid separation until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle through their kinetochores. The checkpoint acts by inhibiting the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a ubiquitin ligase that targets for degradation securin, an inhibitor of anaphase initiation. The activity of APC/C is inhibited by a mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), composed of the APC/C activator Cdc20 bound to the checkpoint proteins MAD2, BubR1, and Bub3. When all kinetochores acquire bipolar attachment the checkpoint is inactivated, but the mechanisms of checkpoint inactivation are not understood. We have previously observed that hydrolyzable ATP is required for exit from checkpoint-arrested state. In this investigation we examined the possibility that ATP hydrolysis in exit from checkpoint is linked to the action of the Mad2-binding protein p31(comet) in this process. It is known that p31(comet) prevents the formation of a Mad2 dimer that it thought to be important for turning on the mitotic checkpoint. This explains how p31(comet) blocks the activation of the checkpoint but not how it promotes its inactivation. Using extracts from checkpoint-arrested cells and MCC isolated from such extracts, we now show that p31(comet) causes the disassembly of MCC and that this process requires ß,γ-hydrolyzable ATP. Although p31(comet) binds to Mad2, it promotes the dissociation of Cdc20 from BubR1 in MCC.

Regulation of APC/C (Cdh1) ubiquitin ligase in differentiation of human embryonic stem cells.

We have recently shown that Skp2 levels are high in undifferentiated human embryonic stem cells, but decline rapidly following induction of differentiation, thereby leading to accumulation of p27. Changes in Skp2 levels were found to be caused mainly by its rate of degradation. Here we show that the activity of APC/C (Cdh1), the ubiquitin ligase that targets Skp2 for degradation, increases markedly during the differentiation process of human embryonic stem cells. APC/C (Cdh1) is present but inactive in undifferentiated embryonic stem cells and becomes active in the differentiated state. The rise in APC/C (Cdh1) activity with differentiation appears to be due, at least in part, to a dramatic decline in the levels of its inhibitor Emi1. In addition, protein kinase activity also appears to contribute to the suppression of APC/C (Cdh1) activity in undifferentiated stem cells, possibly by inhibitory phosphorylation of Cdh1.

ATP is required for the release of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome from inhibition by the mitotic checkpoint.

The mitotic (or spindle assembly) checkpoint system ensures accurate segregation of chromosomes by delaying anaphase until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle. This system acts by inhibiting the activity of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) ubiquitin ligase to target securin for degradation. APC/C is inhibited by a mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) composed of BubR1, Bub3, Mad2, and Cdc20. The molecular mechanisms of the inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint, including the release of APC/C from inhibition, remain obscure. It has been reported that polyubiquitylation by the APC/C is required for the inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint [Reddy SK, Rape M, Margansky WA, Kirschner MW (2007) Nature, 446:921-924]. We confirmed the involvement of polyubiquitylation, but found that another process, which requires ATP cleavage at the beta-gamma position (as opposed to alpha-beta bond scission involved in ubiquitylation), is essential for the release of APC/C from checkpoint inhibition. ATP (beta-gamma) cleavage is required both for the dissociation of MCC components from APC/C and for the disassembly of free MCC, whereas polyubiquitylation is involved only in the former process. We find that the requirement for ATP (beta-gamma) cleavage is not due to the involvement of the 26S proteasome and that the phenomena observed are not due to sustained activity of protein kinase Cdk1/cyclin B, caused by inhibition of the degradation of cyclin B. Thus, some other energy-consuming process is needed for the inactivation of the mitotic checkpoint.

From rabbit reticulocytes to clam oocytes: in search of the system that targets mitotic cyclins for degradation.

By the late 1980s, the basic biochemistry of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation had already been elucidated by studies that used reticulocyte lysates. However, the scope and biological functions of this system remained largely obscure. Therefore, I became interested at that time in the mechanisms by which mitotic cyclins are degraded in exit from mitosis. Using a cell-free system from clam oocytes that faithfully reproduced cell cycle stage-specific degradation of cyclins, we identified in 1995 a large ubiquitin ligase complex that targets mitotic cyclins for degradation. Subsequent studies in many laboratories showed that this ubiquitin ligase, now called the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome, has centrally important roles in many aspects of cell cycle control.