DNA variants are an unlikely explanation for the changing quality of spermatozoa within the same individual.

It has recently been suggested that the human sperm genome is highly unstable, which may be a reasonable explanation as to why men, even fertile men, produce defective spermatozoa. Furthermore, an unstable genome may also explain why the semen profile of the same man changes from one ejaculate to the next. As such, we took multiple ejaculates (between 3 and 6) from 7 individuals over a 6-month period and isolated sperm through density gradients. We then compared the DNA of: (i) good and poor-quality spermatozoa within the same ejaculate; and (ii) from multiple ejaculates from the same individual. Our results suggest that on a global level, DNA present within spermatozoa is actually quite stable and similar between both good and poor sperm. This is important information for the assisted reproductive community when it comes to sperm selection.

Mass Spectrometry Reveals New Insights into the Production of Superoxide Anions and 4-Hydroxynonenal Adducted Proteins in Human Sperm.

The free-radical theory of male infertility suggests that reactive oxygen species produced by the spermatozoa themselves are a leading cause of sperm dysfunction, including loss of sperm motility. However, the field is overshadowed on several fronts, primarily because: i) the probes used to measure reactive oxygen species (ROS) are imprecise; and ii) many reports suggesting that oxygen radicals are detrimental to sperm function add an exogenous source of ROS. Herein, a more reliable approach to measure superoxide anion production by human spermatozoa based on MS analysis is used. Furthermore, the formation of the lipid-peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) during in vitro incubation using proteomics is also investigated. The data demonstrate that neither superoxide anion nor other free radicals that cause 4-HNE production are related to the loss of sperm motility during incubation. Interestingly, it appears that many of the 4-HNE adducted proteins, found within spermatozoa, originate from the prostate. A quantitative SWATH analysis demonstrate that these proteins transiently bind to sperm and are then shed during in vitro incubation. These proteomics-based findings propose a revised understanding of oxidative stress within the male reproductive tract.

Proteomic Analysis Reveals that Topoisomerase 2A is Associated with Defective Sperm Head Morphology.

Male infertility is widespread and estimated to affect 1 in 20 men. Although in some cases the etiology of the condition is well understood, for at least 50% of men, the underlying cause is yet to be classified. Male infertility, or subfertility, is often diagnosed by looking at total sperm produced, motility of the cells and overall morphology. Although counting spermatozoa and their associated motility is routine, morphology assessment is highly subjective, mainly because of the procedure being based on microscopic examination. A failure to diagnose male-infertility or sub-fertility has led to a situation where assisted conception is often used unnecessarily. As such, biomarkers of male infertility are needed to help establish a more consistent diagnosis. In the present study, we compared nuclear extracts from both high- and low-quality spermatozoa by LC-MS/MS based proteomic analysis. Our data shows that nuclear retention of specific proteins is a common facet among low-quality sperm cells. We demonstrate that the presence of Topoisomerase 2A in the sperm head is highly correlated to poor head morphology. Topoisomerase 2A is therefore a potential new biomarker for confirming male infertility in clinical practice.

Proteomic analysis of good- and poor-quality human sperm demonstrates that several proteins are routinely aberrantly regulated.

Male infertility is a complex condition, and for the most part, all men produce defective spermatozoa, but infertile men have a tendency to produce more. Despite attempts to classify infertility, there is no definitive test. One approach would be to use protein biomarkers; however as yet, we still do not understand proteins that are differentially expressed within defective spermatozoa. As such, we took nine men (fertility status unknown) and used Percoll density gradients to isolate a population of good- and poor-quality sperm. For four of these men, we also obtained multiple ejaculations. The most noticeable differences between the Percoll-isolated fractions were motility and CMA3 staining. While the good sperm fraction produced cells with at least 80% forward progressive motility and low levels of CMA3 staining, the poor-quality sperm demonstrated less than 10% forward progressive motility and higher levels CMA3 staining. Using the technique of sequential window activation of all theoretical mass spectra, we quantified 2774 proteins and found 171 proteins to be significantly more abundant in the good sperm fraction, while 104 proteins were significantly more abundant in the lower sperm fraction (adjusted Benjamini-Hochberg significance of P < 0.018, minimum 2-fold difference).

Deficiency in Outer Dense Fiber 1 Is a Marker and Potential Driver of Idiopathic Male Infertility.

Globally, ∼1 in 15 men of reproductive age are infertile, yet the precise mechanisms underlying their gamete failure are unknown. Although a semen analysis is performed to determine fertilizing potential, the diagnostic suitability of this analysis has been questioned in several reports, as many men, classified as infertile according to their semen analysis, subsequently turn out to be fertile. Herein, we have used a quantitative (phospho)-proteomic analysis, using enrichment on titanium dioxide followed by ion-trap mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), to compare the semen of infertile versus fertile males. One protein, namely outer dense fiber 1 (ODF1), was dramatically reduced in infertile males. Using specific antibodies, we then screened the gametes of a cohort of suspected infertile men and demonstrated a reduction in the amount of ODF1 compared with fertile controls. Stress treatment of sperm deficient in ODF1 caused the head to decapitate, suggesting why these gametes fail to initiate fertilization. Interestingly, electron micrographs of ODF1-deficient spermatozoa revealed an abnormal connecting piece, indicating several developmental defects with both the implantation plate and the thin laminated fibers. In some cases, the implantation plate appeared to be reduced in size or was overburdened by granular material near the connecting piece. Hence, a strong reduction ODF1 is a marker of idiopathic male infertility and a potential driver of this condition.

Quantitative Glycopeptide Changes in Rat Sperm During Epididymal Transit.

Mammalian spermatozoa acquire fertilizing potential as they undergo a series of changes during epididymal transit. One major facet of such is the alterations in the sperm glycome. Modifications of the sialic acid content within glycan moieties are known to regulate epitope presentation and cellular adhesion and signaling, all of which may be critical for sperm to successfully reach and fertilize the egg. To date, there is paucity of information regarding the sialic acid changes that occur on spermatozoa during epididymal transit. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify N-linked sialylated glycoproteins in rat epididymal sperm and investigate whether they are regulated during epididymal transit. Sialylated glycopeptides from caput, corpus, and cauda spermatozoa were enriched using titanium dioxide beads. Bound N-linked glycopeptides were released by enzymatic deglycosylation using PNGase F and then analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry. A total of 92 unique N-linked sialylated glycopeptides were identified from 65 different proteins. These included members of the disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein family (ADAM), Basigin, and Testis-expressed protein 101 (TEX101). Remarkably, label-free quantification showed that more than half of these peptides (48/92) were regulated during epididymal transit. Of interest, the protein TEX101 exhibited PNGase F-resistant deglycosylation under the conditions used in this study. The results from this study showed that changes in the N-linked sialoglycoprotein profile is a major hallmark of sperm maturation in rats.

Defining the mechanisms by which the reactive oxygen species by-product, 4-hydroxynonenal, affects human sperm cell function.

Lipid peroxidation products such as the naturally occurring aldehyde 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) are known to be cytotoxic toward different cell types, including spermatozoa. In order to understand this at the molecular level, we have employed a proteomic approach to characterize direct 4-HNE adducts on human spermatozoa. Several proteins were identified to be of particular interest, including aldehyde labeling of histone methyltransferase and dynein heavy chain. In addition, we found that 4-HNE bound to part of the activation segment, cysteine residue 199, of protein kinase A (PKA). Interestingly, at low levels, addition of 4-HNE had a stimulatory effect on PKA. However, this did not correlate to increased phosphotyrosine levels during capacitation. This data explains the link between reactive oxygen species and sperm toxicity. Given that epigenetic regulation is likely affected in oxidative-stressed spermatozoa, this data show that spermatozoa appear to shut down under these conditions before reaching the egg.

Analysis of protein thiol changes occurring during rat sperm epididymal maturation.

The maturation of spermatozoa throughout the epididymal environment occurs in the complete absence of nuclear protein biosynthesis. As such, these cells rely heavily on posttranslational modifications of existing proteins in order to obtain the potential for fertilization. We have used an OxiCat approach to label both free and oxidized cysteine residues in rat sperm proteins and compared the ratio of reduced:oxidized peptides as these cells undergo epididymal transit. In all, 20 peptides, corresponding to 15 proteins, underwent a change in their redox status. Included in this list were A-kinase anchoring protein 4 and fatty acid-binding protein 9. Both of these proteins undergo intradisulfide bonding, leading to reduced solubility and, in the case of the latter, is likely to cause a loss of protein function. Interestingly, two glycolytic enzymes, hexokinase-1 and lactate dehydrogenase, also display increased cysteine oxidation during epididymal transit, which may be involved in the regulation of the enzyme activities.

Phosphopeptide analysis of rodent epididymal spermatozoa.

Spermatozoa are quite unique amongst cell types. Although produced in the testis, both nuclear gene transcription and translation are switched off once the pre-cursor round cell begins to elongate and differentiate into what is morphologically recognized as a spermatozoon. However, the spermatozoon is very immature, having no ability for motility or egg recognition. Both of these events occur once the spermatozoa transit a secondary organ known as the epididymis. During the ~12 day passage that it takes for a sperm cell to pass through the epididymis, post-translational modifications of existing proteins play a pivotal role in the maturation of the cell. One major facet of such is protein phosphorylation. In order to characterize phosphorylation events taking place during sperm maturation, both pure sperm cell populations and pre-fractionation of phosphopeptides must be established. Using back flushing techniques, a method for the isolation of pure spermatozoa of high quality and yield from the distal or caudal epididymides is outlined. The steps for solubilization, digestion, and pre-fractionation of sperm phosphopeptides through TiO2 affinity chromatography are explained. Once isolated, phosphopeptides can be injected into MS to identify both protein phosphorylation events on specific amino acid residues and quantify the levels of phosphorylation taking place during the sperm maturation processes.

Head and flagella subcompartmental proteomic analysis of human spermatozoa.

Subcellular proteomics not only deepens our knowledge of what proteins are present within cells, but also opens our understanding as to where those proteins reside. Given the highly differentiated, cross-linked state of spermatozoa, such studies have proven difficult to perform. In this study we have fractionated spermatozoa into two components, consisting of either the head or flagellar region. Following SDS-PAGE, 1 mm slices were digested and used for LC-MS/MS analysis. In total, 1429 proteins were identified with 721 proteins being exclusively found in the tail and 521 exclusively in the head. Not only is this the largest reported proteomic analysis of human spermatozoa, but also it has provided novel insights into the compartmentalization of proteins, particularly receptors, never previously reported to be present in this cell type.

The molecular chaperone HSPA2 plays a key role in regulating the expression of sperm surface receptors that mediate sperm-egg recognition.

A common defect encountered in the spermatozoa of male infertility patients is an idiopathic failure of sperm-egg recognition. In order to resolve the molecular basis of this condition we have compared the proteomic profiles of spermatozoa exhibiting an impaired capacity for sperm-egg recognition with normal cells using label free mass spectrometry (MS)-based quantification. This analysis indicated that impaired sperm-zona binding was associated with reduced expression of the molecular chaperone, heat shock 70 kDa protein 2 (HSPA2), from the sperm proteome. Western blot analysis confirmed this observation in independent patients and demonstrated that the defect did not extend to other members of the HSP70 family. HSPA2 was present in the acrosomal domain of human spermatozoa as a major component of 5 large molecular mass complexes, the most dominant of which was found to contain HSPA2 in close association with just two other proteins, sperm adhesion molecule 1 (SPAM1) and arylsulfatase A (ARSA), both of which that have previously been implicated in sperm-egg interaction. The interaction between SPAM1, ARSA and HSPA2 in a multimeric complex mediating sperm-egg interaction, coupled with the complete failure of this process when HSPA2 is depleted in infertile patients, provides new insights into the mechanisms by which sperm function is impaired in cases of male infertility.

Analysis of phosphopeptide changes as spermatozoa acquire functional competence in the epididymis demonstrates changes in the post-translational modification of Izumo1.

Spermatozoa are functionally inert when they emerge from the testes. Functional competence is conferred upon these cells during a post-testicular phase of sperm maturation in the epididymis. Remarkably, this functional transformation of epididymal spermatozoa occurs in the absence of nuclear gene transcription or protein translation. To understand the cellular mechanisms underpinning epididymal maturation, we have performed a label-free, MS-based, comparative quantification of peptides from caput, corpus and caudal epididymal spermatozoa. In total, 68 phosphopeptide changes could be detected during epididymal maturation corresponding to the identification of 22 modified proteins. Included in this list are the sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter, the sperm specific serine kinase 1, AKAP4 and protein kinase A regulatory subunit. Furthermore, four phosphopeptide changes came from Izumo1, the sperm-egg fusion protein, in the cytoplasmic segment of the protein. 2D-PAGE confirmed that Izumo1 is post-translationally modified during epididymal transit. Interestingly, phosphorylation on Izumo1 was detected on residue S339 in the caput and corpus but not caudal cells. Furthermore, Izumo1 exhibited four phosphorylated residues when spermatozoa reached the cauda, which were absent from caput cells. A model is advanced suggesting that these phospho-regulations are likely to act as a scaffold for the association of adaptor proteins with Izumo1 as these cells prepare for fertilization.

Use of titanium dioxide to find phosphopeptide and total protein changes during epididymal sperm maturation.

Although the overall performance of modern mass spectrometers has increased, proteomic analysis of complex samples still requires prefractionation either at the protein or peptide level to allow for in-depth analysis of normal cellular function. Here, we report a novel way to identify protein changes occurring during sperm development through the epididymis. Phosphopeptides were first enriched from either the rat caput or caudal regions of the epididymides using TiO(2), and the profiles then quantitatively compared. We show that 77 TiO(2)-enriched peptides become significantly modified in the epididymis, equating to 53 proteins. Through the use of immunoblot analysis, we confirmed that three proteins, ornithine-decarboxylase antizyme 3, heat-shock protein 90α, and testis-lipid binding protein, undergo major protein loss during epididymal passage. Many other proteins, including t-complex protein 10 and Spata18 show testis unique expression, appear to undergo phosphorylation during this same time frame. These data provide mechanistic insight into the means by which spermatozoa acquire functionality during epididymal transit.

Label-free quantitation of phosphopeptide changes during rat sperm capacitation.

Before fertilization can occur, ejaculated mammalian spermatozoa must undergo a maturation process known as capacitation, which is dominated by post-translational modifications, particularly phosphorylation. Despite its biological importance, characterization of those proteins targeted for phosphorylation during capacitation remains ill-defined. Here, we report the isolation and purification of 288 phosphorylated peptides from rat spermatozoa using titanium dioxide columns in combination with nanoflow mass spectrometry. This equated to 120 identified phosphorylated proteins present in pure populations of spermatozoa. The MS survey scans of replicate titanium dioxide eluates, derived from both noncapacitated and capacitated sperm lysates, were then compared in silico using a virtual 2D PAGE format and DeCyderMS software. This analysis found 15 differentially phosphorylated proteins during capacitation. Included in this list were sperm qualifiers such as Izumo, a known sperm-oocyte fusion protein. To demonstrate that this label-free quantitative approach to phosphoprotein analysis was viable, we measured the enzymatic activity of 5'-nucleotidase, the phosphorylation status of which changed during capacitation. The results revealed, for the first time, that 5'-nucleotidase activity is up-regulated as sperm capacitate. This change, together with the other protein identifications reported in this study, constitute important new leads in elucidating the biochemical mechanisms by which spermatozoa attain a capacitated state.

Analysis of proteomic changes associated with sperm capacitation through the combined use of IPG-strip pre-fractionation followed by RP chromatography LC-MS/MS analysis.

Following ejaculation, mammalian spermatozoa undergo an obligatory process known as capacitation, which enables these cells to bind to and fertilize an oocyte. Since spermatozoa are transcriptionally and translationally silent, the functional metamorphosis of these cells during capacitation is accomplished entirely by PTMs. Despite the importance of this process, very few studies have attempted to define the precise nature of the proteomic changes that allow spermatozoa to attain a capacitated state. Here we report the use of an IPG-strip pre-fractionation approach to isolate and purify tryptic peptides derived from mouse spermatozoa exhibiting varying degrees of capacitation. Following focusing, the strips were cut into 1 cm segments, the peptides extracted and run into a mass spectrometer. Label-free, quantitative analysis of proteomic changes associated with capacitation was then performed. In total, we found 210 significant peptide changes. Of these, we could conclusively interpret the tandem mass spectra of 71 peptides, corresponding to 52 protein changes during capacitation. Many proteins including VDAC2, Fascin-3 and sorbitol dehydrogenase (SORD) have not previously been implicated in this process. To validate our data, we were able to show significant upregulation of SORD activity during capacitation, suggesting that the polyol pathway is activated during this process.

Phosphorylation and consequent stimulation of the tyrosine kinase c-Abl by PKA in mouse spermatozoa; its implications during capacitation.

Upon ejaculation, spermatozoa undergo a series of post-translational modifications in a process known as capacitation in order to prepare for fertilization. In the absence of capacitation, fertilization cannot occur. Spermatozoa are unusual in that one of the hallmarks of capacitation is a global up-regulation in phosphotyrosine expression, which is known to be mediated upstream by PKA. Little is known about the signaling events downstream of PKA apart from the involvement of SRC, as a key mediator of PKA-induced tyrosine phosphorylation in the sperm tail. Here we describe the presence of c-Abl in mouse spermatozoa. In vitro analysis confirmed that PKA can up-regulate c-Abl kinase activity. In vivo, this tyrosine kinase was found to associate, and become threonine phosphorylated by PKA in the sperm flagellum. By treating spermatozoa with hemolysin we could demonstrate that a significant proportion of the tyrosine phosphorylation associated with capacitation could be suppressed by the c-Abl inhibitor, Gleevac. This is the first report of c-Abl being up-regulated by PKA for any cell type. We present a model, whereby these kinases may operate together with SRC to ensure optimal levels of tyrosine phosphorylation in the sperm flagellum during the attainment of a capacitated state.

The rat sperm proteome characterized via IPG strip prefractionation and LC-MS/MS identification.

Proteomics represents a powerful tool for the analysis of mammalian spermatozoa, since these terminally differentiated cells are transcriptionally inactive and exhibit a limited dynamic range of protein expression. Here we report the identification of 5123 peptides, leading to 829 unambiguous and 2215 redundant gene products found to be present within rat spermatozoa derived from the cauda epididymis. Bioinformatics demonstrated that 60 proteins appeared to be specifically expressed in the genitourinary tract, including pyruvate dehydrogenase 1, ropporin, testis-specific serine kinase 4, testis-specific transporter, and retinol dehydrogenase 14. We also identified eight members of the ADAM family, seven of which have previously been detected in spermatozoa (ADAM2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, and -30) while ADAM34 has been identified in the sperm proteome for the first time. Approximately 21 gene products were found to possess isomerase activity including peptidylprolyl cis/trans isomerases that are known to be involved in germ cell differentiation and protein disulfide isomerases that have been implicated in sperm-oocyte fusion. Furthermore, 51 gene products clustered into ion-transporter activity. This inventory of gene products, the first ever 2-D LC-MS/MS analysis of rat spermatozoa, will be invaluable in directing future research into the molecular mechanisms that drive these highly specialized cells.

The mouse sperm proteome characterized via IPG strip prefractionation and LC-MS/MS identification.

Proteomic profiling of the mouse spermatozoon has generated a unique and valuable inventory of candidates that can be mined for potential contraceptive targets and to further our understanding of the PTMs that regulate the functionality of this highly specialized cell. Here we report the identification of 858 proteins derived from mouse spermatozoa, 23 of which demonstrated testis only expression. The list contained many proteins that are known constituents of murine spermatozoa including Izumo, Spaca 1, 3, and 5, Spam 1, Zonadhesin, Spesp1, Smcp, Spata 6, 18, and 19, Zp3r, Zpbp 1 and 2, Spa17, Spag 6, 16, and 17, CatSper4, Acr, Cylc2, Odf1 and 2, Acrbp, and Acrv1. Certain protein families were highly represented in the proteome. For example, of the 42 gene products classified as proteases, 26 belonged to the 26S-proteasome. Of the many chaperones identified in this proteome, eight proteins with a TCP-1 domain were found, as were seven Rab guanosine triphosphatases. Finally, our list yielded three putative seven-transmembrane proteins, two of which have no known tissue distribution, an extragenomic progesterone receptor and three unique testis-specific kinases all of which may have some potential in the future regulation of male fertility.