Cost-Effectiveness of an Intensive Upper Limb Rehabilitation Therapy for Children With Unilateral Cerebral Palsy: An Economic Evaluation of a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background: Unilateral cerebral palsy is a major cause of childhood disability and a substantial economic burden. Intensive group-based therapy, consisting of hybrid constraint-induced movement and bimanual therapies, has been shown to be effective in improving specific quality-of-life domains in children with this disability. Our objective in this study was to assess if this intervention was cost-effective compared with standard care. Methods: An open-label, parallel, randomized controlled trial with an embedded economic evaluation of the intervention was conducted. A total of 47 children were randomized to either the intervention group (n = 27) or the standard care (n = 20) group. The effectiveness of the intervention was assessed using the Cerebral Palsy Quality of Life (Child) questionnaire across several domains. Nonparametric bootstrapping was used to quantify uncertainty intervals (UIs) for incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. Results: The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios for the intervention were 273(95107 to 945)forPainandImpactofDisability,1071 (95% UI: -5718to4606) for Family Health and 1732(956448 to 8775)forAccesstoServices.Forthe4remainingdomains,theinterventionwasdominatedbystandardcare.Atawillingness-to-paythresholdof1000, only for the Pain and Impact of Disability domain was the intervention likely to have a probability of being cost-effective exceeding 0.75. Conclusions: Other than the Pain and Impact of Disability domain, there was insufficient evidence demonstrating the intervention to be cost-effective over a 13-week time horizon.

Equol, a soybean metabolite with estrogen-like functions, decreases lipopolysaccharide-induced human neutrophil extracellular traps in vitro.

OBJECTIVE: Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) defend against acute infections. However, their overexpression causes organ failure during sepsis. Control of NET formation may improve the outcomes of patients with sepsis. Equol, a soybean isoflavone, is a female hormone analog, which prevents inflammation. We evaluated the effects of equol on NET formation in human neutrophils during inflammatory stimulation in vitro. METHODS: Healthy volunteers provided blood samples. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assessed serum equol concentrations. NET formation in neutrophils was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. ELISA quantified DNA-binding elastase, and immunostaining assessed NET formation. Reverse-transcription quantitative PCR and western blotting detected G-protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) or peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) expression. Flow cytometry assessed neutrophil phagocytic ability with inactivated Escherichia coli. RESULTS: In neutrophils derived from males with low-serum equol levels (low-serum equol group), equol significantly decreased DNA-binding elastase levels and NET formation. Equol did not decrease NETs in neutrophils from males with high-serum equol levels. GPR30 expression of neutrophils was higher in the low-serum than in the high-serum equol group. PAD4 mRNA levels and nuclear PAD4 protein expression also decreased than the vehicle control in the low-serum equol group. Equol did not alter the phagocytic ability of neutrophils. In neutrophils from young females, equol had no inhibitory effect on NET formation. CONCLUSIONS: Equol decreases LPS-induced NET formation in neutrophils from males via inhibition of PAD4 expression. Our findings provide a rationale for investigating a new therapeutic approach using equol to control neutrophil activity during sepsis.

Empanelment of the Population to the Primary Medical Care Institution of Sri Lanka: A Mixed-Methods Study on Outcomes and Challenges.

The registration of individuals with designated primary medical care institutions (PMCIs) is a key step towards their empanelment with these PMCIs, supported by the Primary Health Care System Strengthening Project in Sri Lanka. We conducted an explanatory mixed-methods study to assess the extent of registration at nine selected PMCIs and understand the challenges therein. By June 2021, 36,999 (19.2%, 95% CI-19.0-19.4%) of the 192,358 catchment population allotted to these PMCIs were registered. At this rate, only 50% coverage would be achieved by the end of the project (December 2023). Proportions of those aged <35 years and males among those registered were lower compared to their general population distribution. Awareness activities regarding registration were conducted in most of the PMCIs, but awareness in the community was low. Poor registration coverage was due to a lack of dedicated staff for registration, misconceptions of health care workers about individuals needing to be registered, reliance on opportunistic or passive registration, and lack of monitoring mechanisms; these were further compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic. Moving forward, there is an urgent need to address these challenges to improve registration coverage and ensure that all individuals are empaneled before the close of the project for it to have a meaningful impact.

Outcomes and Challenges in Noncommunicable Disease Care Provision in Health Facilities Supported by Primary Health Care System Strengthening Project in Sri Lanka: A Mixed-Methods Study.

The Primary Healthcare System Strengthening Project in Sri Lanka focuses on improving noncommunicable disease (NCD) care provision at primary medical care institutions (PMCIs). We conducted an explanatory mixed-methods study to assess completeness of screening for NCD risk, linkage to care, and outcomes of diabetes/hypertension care at nine selected PMCIs, as well as to understand reasons for gaps. Against a screening coverage target of 50% among individuals aged ≥ 35 years, PMCIs achieved 23.3% (95% CI: 23.0-23.6%) because of a lack of perceived need for screening among the public and COVID-19-related service disruptions. Results of investigations and details of further referral were not documented in almost half of those screened. Post screening, 45% of those eligible for follow-up NCD care were registered at medical clinics. Lack of robust recording/tracking mechanisms and preference for private providers contributed to post-screening attrition. Follow-up biochemical investigations for monitoring complications were not conducted in more than 50% of diabetes/hypertension patients due to nonprescription of investigations by healthcare providers and poor uptake among patients because of nonavailability of investigations at PMCI, requiring them to avail services from the private sector, incurring out-of-pocket expenditure. Primary care strengthening needs to address these challenges to ensure successful integration of NCD care within PMCIs.

Primary Health Care System Strengthening Project in Sri Lanka: Status and Challenges with Human Resources, Information Systems, Drugs and Laboratory Services.

A Primary Healthcare-System-Strengthening Project (PSSP) is implemented by the Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka, with funding support from the World Bank for providing quality care through primary medical care institutions (PMCIs). We used an explanatory mixed-methods study to assess progress and challenges in human resources, drug availability, laboratory services and the health management information system (HMIS) at PMCIs. We conducted a checklist-based assessment followed by in-depth interviews of healthcare workers in one PMCI each in all nine provinces. All PMCIs had medical/nursing officers, but data entry operators (44%) and laboratory technicians (33%) were mostly not available. Existing staff were assigned additional responsibilities in PSSP, decreasing their motivation and efficiency. While 11/18 (61%) essential drugs were available in all PMCIs, buffer stocks were not maintained in >50% due to poor supply chain management and storage infrastructure. Only 6/14 (43%) essential laboratory investigations were available in >50% of PMCIs, non-availability was due to shortages of reagents/consumables and lack of sample collection−transportation system. The HMIS was installed in PMCIs but its usage was sub-optimal due to perceived lack of utility, few trained operators and poor internet connectivity. The PSSP needs to address these bottlenecks as a priority to ensure sustainability and successful scale-up.

Assessing public financing for nutrition in Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

The objective of this study was to assess public financing for nutrition in Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka to identify limitations of available data and to discuss policy implications. A variant of the Scaling Up Nutrition Movement methodology was used. Budget allocations and expenditures for relevant government ministries during 2012-2018 were identified. Nutrition-related line items were tagged using definitions of nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions. Data were aggregated by year and calculated in constant United States dollars (USD). Expenditures by year were presented as a proportion of gross domestic product and general government expenditures. The percent utilization of budget allocations and proportion of funding from central government sources were determined. Per capita expenditures on nutrition-specific interventions varied from USD 1.08-8.76 and for nutrition-sensitive interventions varied from USD 20.22-51.20. Nutrition-specific expenditures as a percent of gross domestic product ranged from 0.08% in Sri Lanka in 2017% to 0.34% in Nepal in 2016. The median utilization rate was 64% for nutrition-specific and 84% for nutrition-sensitive interventions. Nutrition-specific funding financed by the central government was 90.7% in Bhutan and 99.4% in Sri Lanka. This study revealed the need to prioritize and invest in evidence-based interventions, including balancing investments in nutrition-specific versus -sensitive interventions. Challenges in estimation of nutrition expenditures and cross-country comparison were also observed, highlighting the need for appropriate nutrition line item tagging and standardized systems for data collection.

Integration of congenital cytomegalovirus screening within a newborn hearing screening programme.

AIM: Targeted screening by a salivary cytomegalovirus (CMV) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of infants who 'refer' on their newborn hearing screen has been suggested as an easy, reliable and cost-effective approach to identify and treat babies with congenital CMV (cCMV) to improve hearing outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of introducing targeted salivary cCMV testing into a newborn hearing screening programme. METHODS: The study included three tertiary maternity hospitals in Queensland, Australia between August 2014 and April 2016. Infants who 'referred' on the newborn hearing screen were offered a salivary swab for CMV PCR at the point of referral to audiology. Swabs were routinely processed and tested for CMV DNA by real-time quantitative PCR. Parents of babies with a positive CMV PCR were notified, and the babies were medically assessed and, where appropriate, were offered treatment (oral valganciclovir). RESULTS: Of eligible infants, the parents of 83.0% (234/283) consented to the cCMV screen. Of these, 96.6% returned a negative result (226/234), and 3.4% (8/234) returned a positive result (three true positive; five false positive). The prevalence of cCMV for infants with confirmed hearing loss was 3.64% (P = 2/55; confidence interval = 0.44-12.53%). The cost comparison suggests the cost implementation of cCMV screening (and subsequent potential treatment benefits and management over time), compared to non-screening (and subsequent management), to be negligible. CONCLUSION: Incorporating cCMV testing into Universal Newborn Hearing Screening within Queensland is realistic and achievable, both practically and financially.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of population-based tobacco control strategies in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Tobacco consumption contributes significantly to the global burden of disease. The prevalence of smoking is estimated to be increasing in many low-income countries, including Tanzania, especially among women and youth. Even so, the implementation of tobacco control measures has been discouraging in the country. Efforts to foster investment in tobacco control are hindered by lack of evidence on what works and at what cost. AIMS: We aim to estimate the cost and cost-effectiveness of population-based tobacco control strategies in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in Tanzania. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cost-effectiveness analysis was performed using an Excel-based Markov model, from a governmental perspective. We employed an ingredient approach and step-down methodologies in the costing exercise following a government perspective. Epidemiological data and efficacy inputs were derived from the literature. We used disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted as the outcome measure. A probabilistic sensitivity analysis was carried out with Ersatz to incorporate uncertainties in the model parameters. RESULTS: Our model results showed that all five tobacco control strategies were very cost-effective since they fell below the ceiling ratio of one GDP per capita suggested by the WHO. Increase in tobacco taxes was the most cost-effective strategy, while a workplace smoking ban was the least cost-effective option, with a cost-effectiveness ratio of US$5 and US$267, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Even though all five interventions are deemed very cost-effective in the prevention of CVD in Tanzania, more research on budget impact analysis is required to further assess the government's ability to implement these interventions.

Burden of musculoskeletal disorders in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, 1990-2013: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.

OBJECTIVES: We used findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 to report the burden of musculoskeletal disorders in the Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR). METHODS: The burden of musculoskeletal disorders was calculated for the EMR's 22 countries between 1990 and 2013. A systematic analysis was performed on mortality and morbidity data to estimate prevalence, death, years of live lost, years lived with disability and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). RESULTS: For musculoskeletal disorders, the crude DALYs rate per 100 000 increased from 1297.1 (95% uncertainty interval (UI) 924.3-1703.4) in 1990 to 1606.0 (95% UI 1141.2-2130.4) in 2013. During 1990-2013, the total DALYs of musculoskeletal disorders increased by 105.2% in the EMR compared with a 58.0% increase in the rest of the world. The burden of musculoskeletal disorders as a proportion of total DALYs increased from 2.4% (95% UI 1.7-3.0) in 1990 to 4.7% (95% UI 3.6-5.8) in 2013. The range of point prevalence (per 1000) among the EMR countries was 28.2-136.0 for low back pain, 27.3-49.7 for neck pain, 9.7-37.3 for osteoarthritis (OA), 0.6-2.2 for rheumatoid arthritis and 0.1-0.8 for gout. Low back pain and neck pain had the highest burden in EMR countries. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows a high burden of musculoskeletal disorders, with a faster increase in EMR compared with the rest of the world. The reasons for this faster increase need to be explored. Our findings call for incorporating prevention and control programmes that should include improving health data, addressing risk factors, providing evidence-based care and community programmes to increase awareness.

Global and National Burden of Diseases and Injuries Among Children and Adolescents Between 1990 and 2013: Findings From the Global Burden of Disease 2013 Study.

IMPORTANCE: The literature focuses on mortality among children younger than 5 years. Comparable information on nonfatal health outcomes among these children and the fatal and nonfatal burden of diseases and injuries among older children and adolescents is scarce. OBJECTIVE: To determine levels and trends in the fatal and nonfatal burden of diseases and injuries among younger children (aged <5 years), older children (aged 5-9 years), and adolescents (aged 10-19 years) between 1990 and 2013 in 188 countries from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2013 study. EVIDENCE REVIEW: Data from vital registration, verbal autopsy studies, maternal and child death surveillance, and other sources covering 14,244 site-years (ie, years of cause of death data by geography) from 1980 through 2013 were used to estimate cause-specific mortality. Data from 35,620 epidemiological sources were used to estimate the prevalence of the diseases and sequelae in the GBD 2013 study. Cause-specific mortality for most causes was estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble Model strategy. For some infectious diseases (eg, HIV infection/AIDS, measles, hepatitis B) where the disease process is complex or the cause of death data were insufficient or unavailable, we used natural history models. For most nonfatal health outcomes, DisMod-MR 2.0, a Bayesian metaregression tool, was used to meta-analyze the epidemiological data to generate prevalence estimates. FINDINGS: Of the 7.7 (95% uncertainty interval [UI], 7.4-8.1) million deaths among children and adolescents globally in 2013, 6.28 million occurred among younger children, 0.48 million among older children, and 0.97 million among adolescents. In 2013, the leading causes of death were lower respiratory tract infections among younger children (905.059 deaths; 95% UI, 810,304-998,125), diarrheal diseases among older children (38,325 deaths; 95% UI, 30,365-47,678), and road injuries among adolescents (115,186 deaths; 95% UI, 105,185-124,870). Iron deficiency anemia was the leading cause of years lived with disability among children and adolescents, affecting 619 (95% UI, 618-621) million in 2013. Large between-country variations exist in mortality from leading causes among children and adolescents. Countries with rapid declines in all-cause mortality between 1990 and 2013 also experienced large declines in most leading causes of death, whereas countries with the slowest declines had stagnant or increasing trends in the leading causes of death. In 2013, Nigeria had a 12% global share of deaths from lower respiratory tract infections and a 38% global share of deaths from malaria. India had 33% of the world's deaths from neonatal encephalopathy. Half of the world's diarrheal deaths among children and adolescents occurred in just 5 countries: India, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Ethiopia. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Understanding the levels and trends of the leading causes of death and disability among children and adolescents is critical to guide investment and inform policies. Monitoring these trends over time is also key to understanding where interventions are having an impact. Proven interventions exist to prevent or treat the leading causes of unnecessary death and disability among children and adolescents. The findings presented here show that these are underused and give guidance to policy makers in countries where more attention is needed.

The global burden of injury: incidence, mortality, disability-adjusted life years and time trends from the Global Burden of Disease study 2013.

BACKGROUND: The Global Burden of Diseases (GBD), Injuries, and Risk Factors study used the disability-adjusted life year (DALY) to quantify the burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors. This paper provides an overview of injury estimates from the 2013 update of GBD, with detailed information on incidence, mortality, DALYs and rates of change from 1990 to 2013 for 26 causes of injury, globally, by region and by country. METHODS: Injury mortality was estimated using the extensive GBD mortality database, corrections for ill-defined cause of death and the cause of death ensemble modelling tool. Morbidity estimation was based on inpatient and outpatient data sets, 26 cause-of-injury and 47 nature-of-injury categories, and seven follow-up studies with patient-reported long-term outcome measures. RESULTS: In 2013, 973 million (uncertainty interval (UI) 942 to 993) people sustained injuries that warranted some type of healthcare and 4.8 million (UI 4.5 to 5.1) people died from injuries. Between 1990 and 2013 the global age-standardised injury DALY rate decreased by 31% (UI 26% to 35%). The rate of decline in DALY rates was significant for 22 cause-of-injury categories, including all the major injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Injuries continue to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the developed and developing world. The decline in rates for almost all injuries is so prominent that it warrants a general statement that the world is becoming a safer place to live in. However, the patterns vary widely by cause, age, sex, region and time and there are still large improvements that need to be made.

Cost-Effectiveness of a Nonpharmacological Intervention in Pediatric Burn Care.

OBJECTIVE: To report the cost-effectiveness of a tailored handheld computerized procedural preparation and distraction intervention (Ditto) used during pediatric burn wound care in comparison to standard practice. METHODS: An economic evaluation was performed alongside a randomized controlled trial of 75 children aged 4 to 13 years who presented with a burn to the Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia. Participants were randomized to either the Ditto intervention (n = 35) or standard practice (n = 40) to measure the effect of the intervention on days taken for burns to re-epithelialize. Direct medical, direct nonmedical, and indirect cost data during burn re-epithelialization were extracted from the randomized controlled trial data and combined with scar management cost data obtained retrospectively from medical charts. Nonparametric bootstrapping was used to estimate statistical uncertainty in cost and effect differences and cost-effectiveness ratios. RESULTS: On average, the Ditto intervention reduced the time to re-epithelialize by 3 days at AU$194 less cost for each patient compared with standard practice. The incremental cost-effectiveness plane showed that 78% of the simulated results were within the more effective and less costly quadrant and 22% were in the more effective and more costly quadrant, suggesting a 78% probability that the Ditto intervention dominates standard practice (i.e., cost-saving). At a willingness-to-pay threshold of AU$120, there is a 95% probability that the Ditto intervention is cost-effective (or cost-saving) against standard care. CONCLUSIONS: This economic evaluation showed the Ditto intervention to be highly cost-effective against standard practice at a minimal cost for the significant benefits gained, supporting the implementation of the Ditto intervention during burn wound care.

Surgically avertable burden of digestive diseases at first-level hospitals in low and middle-income regions.

BACKGROUND: To quantify the burden of digestive diseases avertable by surgical care at first-level hospitals in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: We examined 4 digestive diseases from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2010 STUDY: Appendicitis, intestinal obstruction, inguinal and femoral hernia, and gallbladder and bile duct disease. Using demographic and epidemiologic data from the GBD 2010 STUDY, we calculated the potential decrease in burden of digestive diseases if quality surgical services were available universally and accessible at first-level hospitals. The lowest case fatality rates for each age and sex grouping from all GBD regions were assumed to reflect the best possible state of full surgical coverage and treatment. These best scenario rates were applied to the GBD 2010 results from all LMIC regions to estimate surgically avertable burden. RESULTS: Overall, 4.8 million disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) or 65% of burden related to the 4 digestive diseases are avertable potentially with first-level surgical care in LMICs. Sub-Saharan Africa has the greatest avertable burden in absolute DALYs (1.7 million) and avertable proportion (83%). Intestinal obstruction accounted for the largest portion of avertable burden among the 4 digestive diseases (2.2 million DALYs; 64% avertable). CONCLUSION: Improving the capacity of surgical services at first-level hospitals is essential for averting the burden of digestive diseases in LMICs. Practicable strategies for scaling up surgical capacities in rural districts are available potentially, which must be given due attention.

Burden of injuries avertable by a basic surgical package in low- and middle-income regions: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study.

BACKGROUND: Injuries accounted for 11 % of the global burden of disease in 2010. This study aimed to quantify the burden of injury in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) that could be averted if basic surgical services were made available and accessible to the entire population. METHODS: We examined all causes of injury from the Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study. We split the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for these conditions between surgically "avertable" and "nonavertable" burdens. For estimating the avertable fatal burden, we applied the lowest fatality rates among the 21 epidemiologic regions to each LMIC region, assuming that the differences in death rates between each region and the lowest rates reflect the gap in surgical care. We adjusted for fatal cases that occur prior to reaching hospitals as they are not surgically avertable. Similarly, we applied the lowest nonfatal burden per case to each LMIC region. RESULTS: Overall, 21 % of the injury burden in LMICs was potentially avertable by basic surgical care (52.3 million DALYs). The avertable proportion was greater for deaths than for nonfatal burden (23 vs. 20 %), suggesting that surgical services for injuries more effectively save lives than ameliorate disability. Sub-Saharan Africa had the largest proportion of potentially avertable burden (25 %). South Asia had the highest total avertable DALYs (17.4 million). Road injury comprised the largest total avertable burden in LMICs (16.1 million DALYs). CONCLUSIONS: Basic surgical care has the potential to play a major role in reducing the injury-related burden in LMICs.

The burden of selected congenital anomalies amenable to surgery in low and middle-income regions: cleft lip and palate, congenital heart anomalies and neural tube defects.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the burden of selected congenital anomalies in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) that could be reduced should surgical programmes cover the entire population with access to quality care. DESIGN: Burden of disease and epidemiological modelling. SETTING: LMICs from all global regions. POPULATION: All prevalent cases of selected congenital anomalies at birth in 2010. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). INTERVENTIONS AND METHODS: Surgical programmes for three congenital conditions were analysed: clefts (lip and palate); congenital heart anomalies; and neural tube defects. Data from the Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study were used to estimate the combination of fatal burden that could be addressed by surgical care and the additional long-term non-fatal burden associated with increased survival. RESULTS: Of the estimated 21.6 million DALYs caused by these three conditions in LMICs, 12.4 million DALYs (57%) are potentially addressable by surgical care among the population born with such conditions. Neural tube defects have the largest potential with 76% of burden amenable by surgery, followed by clefts (59%) and congenital heart anomalies (49%). Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia have the greatest proportion of surgically addressable burden for clefts (68%), North Africa and Middle East for congenital heart anomalies (73%), and South Asia for neural tube defects (81%). CONCLUSIONS: There is an important and neglected role surgical programmes can play in reducing the burden of congenital anomalies in LMICs.

Mortality attributable to smoking in Vietnamese men in 2008.

OBJECTIVE: Smoking prevalence among Vietnamese men is among the highest in the world. Our aim was to provide estimates of tobacco attributable mortality to support tobacco control policies. METHOD: We used the Peto-Lopez method using lung cancer mortality to derive a Smoking Impact Ratio (SIR) as a marker of cumulative exposure to smoking. SIRs were applied to relative risks from the Cancer Prevention Study, Phase II. Prevalence-based and hybrid methods, using the SIR for cancers and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and smoking prevalence for all other outcomes, were used in sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: When lung cancer was used to measure cumulative smoking exposure, 28% (95% uncertainty interval 24-31%) of all adult male deaths (>35 years) in Vietnam in 2008 were attributable to smoking. Lower estimates resulted from prevalence-based methods [24% (95% uncertainty interval 21-26%)] with the hybrid method yielding intermediate estimates [26% (95% uncertainty interval 23-28%)]. CONCLUSION: Despite uncertainty in these estimates of attributable mortality, tobacco smoking is already a major risk factor for death in Vietnamese men. Given the high current prevalence of smoking, this has important implications not only for preventing the uptake of tobacco but also for immediate action to adopt and enforce stronger tobacco control measures.

Evidence and decision making: tobacco control policy and legislation in Vietnam.

The Ministry of Health (MOH) in Vietnam is currently drafting the Tobacco Harm Prevention Law. The government requested the MOH to provide evidence on the strategies proposed in the draft law as part of its submission to the National Assembly. This study examines the availability and strength of evidence and its relationship to policy stakeholders' positions towards policy instruments proposed in the law. Several qualitative methods were employed including documentary analysis, key informant interviews, focus group discussion and a key stakeholders' survey. Contradictory findings were identified over the role of evidence. While there is high demand for local evidence, the availability and strength of evidence are not always aligned with stakeholders' positions with respect to different strategies. Stakeholders' positions are shaped by competing interests on the basis of their perceptions of the socioeconomic implications and health consequences of tobacco control. Claims of limited availability of evidence are often used to justify the maintenance of the status quo, a position that is seen to protect the state-owned tobacco industry and state revenue. Local evidence of the impact of tobacco on population health is argued to be 'one-sided' and evidence of selected interventions discounted. Compelling and comprehensive local evidence, including those addressing economic concerns, is acutely needed in order to proceed with the current legislation process. For evidence to play a critical role, it needs to engage those ministries responsible for the tobacco industry itself and the economic development.

Monte Carlo simulation of the cost-effectiveness of sample size maintenance programs revealed the need to consider substitution sampling.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost-effectiveness of sample size maintenance programs in a prospective cohort. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: The Living with Diabetes Study in Queensland, Australia is a longitudinal survey providing a comprehensive examination of health care utilization and disease progression among people with diabetes. Data from this study were used to compare the cost-effectiveness of a program incorporating substitution sampling with two alternative programs: "no follow-up" and "usual practice." RESULTS: A program involving substitution sampling was shown to be the most effective with an additional 3,556 complete responses (compared with a "no follow-up" program) and an additional 2,099 complete responses (compared with "usual practice"). An incremental analysis through a Monte Carlo simulation found substitution sampling to be the most cost-effective option for maintaining sample size with an incremental cost-effective ratio of $54.87 (95% uncertainty interval $52.68-$57.25) compared with $87.58 ($77.89-$100.09) for "usual practice." CONCLUSIONS: Based on the available data, a program involving substitution sampling is economically justified and should be considered in any approach with the aim of maintaining sample size. There is, however, a continuing need to evaluate the effectiveness of this option on other outcome measures, such as bias.

Translating knowledge into policy: provision and use of evidence in the Tobacco Harm Prevention Law in Vietnam.

Vietnam is currently considering a Tobacco Harm Prevention Law and the Ministry of Health has been asked to provide supporting evidence. This analysis explores factors influencing uptake of evidence in that legislation process. The political environment reflects the government's ambivalence over how to balance health and socioeconomic issues of tobacco control in a state-owned industry. Although the growing presence of transnational tobacco companies is alarming, the role of Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in prompting government compliance with set milestones is encouraging. Evidence of effectiveness of interventions for health needs now to be complemented with socioeconomic evaluation, and strengthening of the ties between advocates and decision makers.

Systematic review of the cost-effectiveness of sample size maintenance programs in studies involving postal questionnaires reveals insufficient economic information.

OBJECTIVES: To identify and assess the existing cost-effectiveness evidence for sample size maintenance programs. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: Articles were identified by searching Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials Embase, CINAHL, PubMed, and Web of Science from 1966 to July 2011. Randomized controlled trials in which investigators evaluated program cost-effectiveness in postal questionnaires were eligible for inclusion. RESULTS: Fourteen studies from 13 articles, with 11,165 participants met the inclusion criteria. Thirty-one distinct programs were identified; each incorporated at least one strategy (reminders, incentives, modified questionnaires, or types of postage) aimed at minimizing attrition. Reminders, in the form of replacement questionnaires and cards, were the most commonly used strategies, with 15 and 11 studies reporting their usage, respectively. All strategies improved response, with financial incentives being the most costly. Heterogeneity between studies was too great to allow for meta-analysis of the results. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of strategies such as no-obligation incentives, modified questionnaires, and personalized reply paid postage improved program cost-effectiveness. Analyses of attrition minimization programs need to consider both cost and effect in their evaluation.