Methods of running gait analysis.

The continued increase in running popularity has led to a subsequent increase in the need to assess running gait more easily and affordably. Although traditional measurement devices such as motion capture systems, force plates, and electromyography are adequate methods of gait analysis, they suffer from several limitations, such as expense and lack of portability. Recent technological advances have made available more viable options such as accelerometers, electrogoniometers, gyroscopes, and in-shoe pressure sensors. These sensors are being used more commonly to acquire the same information as the more traditional systems, without the associated limitations. Combined with wireless technology and/or data loggers, they provide an affordable, lightweight alternative to gait analysis, allowing data collection over prolonged periods of time in almost any environment. This article will review the current technologies used in the analysis of running gait, with a focus upon the latest developments and equipment.

Training to maximize economy of motion in running gait.

Recent reviews of how training affects running performance have indicated, to varying degrees, that running economy (RE) is a determinant of running performance. However, the literature suggests that the relationship between training-induced changes in biomechanics and RE is still largely unknown. While there is some evidence that high intensity interval training, plyometrics, and altitude/hypoxia training can improve economy, it remains unclear how these improvements are mediated. In addition, although it is clear from the literature that meaningful differences in RE exist among runners, the causes for the inherent differences are not clear. Consequently, suggestions are made to explore more individualized and integrated models of the determinants of performance that might better explain the interrelatedness of gait, RE, V.O2max, and peak performance.

Muscle strain is modulated more with running slope than speed in wild turkey knee and hip extensors.

We examined the length changes and electromyographic (EMG) activity of two hindlimb muscles in wild turkeys, to determine how these muscles modulate mechanical function with changes in running speed and slope. The muscles studied were the iliotibialis lateralis pars postacetabularis (ILPO), a biarticular knee and hip extensor, and the femorotibialis lateralis (FT), a knee extensor. Muscle length changes were recorded using sonomicrometry, and EMG activity was recorded from indwelling bipolar electrodes as the animals walked and ran at a range of speeds (1-3.5 m s(-1)). Treadmill slope was also varied, from a 12 degrees uphill slope to a downhill slope of -12 degrees. To test the hypothesis that the strain pattern in active muscles reflects the demand for mechanical work, we compared strain in the ILPO and FT across the range of slopes. Both muscles underwent active lengthen-shorten cycles during stance. We analyzed the lengthening and shortening part of the strain pattern separately to determine the response of muscle strain to surface slope. In both muscles stance phase shortening strain increased over the range of slopes studied, from 7.8+/-3.5% (ILPO) and 1.9+/-2.2% (FT) during downhill running at -12 degrees, to 30.3+/-3.9% (ILPO) and 8.2+/-5.6% (FT) during uphill running at 12 degrees. Stance-phase lengthening strain was also modulated with slope, from -15.6+/-3.2% (ILPO) and -22.1+/-9.6% (FT) during downhill running at -12 degrees, to -4.2+/-2.5% (ILPO) and -9.0+/-5.6% (FT) during uphill running at 12 degrees. The results suggest that for the ILPO and FT a change in net mechanical work output with running slope is likely mediated by a change in both the lengthening, energy absorbing portion of the contraction and the shortening, energy producing part of the contraction. We also found changes in the timing of EMG activity, and the relative portion of the stance period spent lengthening, which were consistent with a shift in muscle function from energy absorption during downhill running, to net energy production during uphill running. Generally, muscle strain was less affected by speed than by slope. Shortening strains were not significantly correlated with running speed. Only FT lengthening strain changed significantly with speed, ranging from -6.8+/-4.3% at 1 m s(-1) to -15.3+/-4.7% at 3.5 m s(-1). The consistent patterns of strain changes with running slope are evidence that strain pattern is modulated to meet the changes in demand for net mechanical work. The relatively poor relationship between strain and running speed may reflect the fact that changes in running speed during level running are not associated with a change in demand for net mechanical work. Taken together, the speed and slope results suggest that the demand for mechanical work is an important determinant of muscle length patterns in running and walking.

Can albuterol help resistance exercise attenuate unloading-induced bone loss?

Hind-limb-suspended rats incur attenuated bone loss with beta(2)-agonists, and humans note similar changes with concurrent resistance exercise. To examine if the beta(2)-agonist albuterol helps resistance exercise reduce unloading-induced bone loss, human subjects performed 40 days of unilateral limb suspension with their left legs, otherwise refraining from normal ambulatory activity. While performing left leg strength training 3 days.week(-1), subjects received a concurrent placebo or albuterol (16 mg.day(-1)) treatment. Left leg muscle and bone changes were analyzed with 2 x 2 analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs). Mechanical loading values were calculated from workouts and compared using a 2 x 5 analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a Tukey post hoc test. The resistance exercise-albuterol assignment evoked significant (p < 0.05) left leg bone mineral content (BMC) gains (+2.24%) after 40 days. During the final unloading days, the resistance exercise-placebo group's mechanical loading data declined (-13.91%) significantly (p < 0.05) versus initial values. A resistance exercise-albuterol assignment likely increased BMC by maintaining the mechanical loading stimulus.