Using wire shaping techniques and holographic optics to optimize deposition characteristics in wire-based laser cladding.

In laser cladding, the potential benefits of wire feeding are considerable. Typical problems with the use of powder, such as gas entrapment, sub-100% material density and low deposition rate are all avoided with the use of wire. However, the use of a powder-based source material is the industry standard, with wire-based deposition generally regarded as an academic curiosity. This is because, although wire-based methods have been shown to be capable of superior quality results, the wire-based process is more difficult to control. In this work, the potential for wire shaping techniques, combined with existing holographic optical element knowledge, is investigated in order to further improve the processing characteristics. Experiments with pre-placed wire showed the ability of shaped wire to provide uniformity of wire melting compared with standard round wire, giving reduced power density requirements and superior control of clad track dilution. When feeding with flat wire, the resulting clad tracks showed a greater level of quality consistency and became less sensitive to alterations in processing conditions. In addition, a 22% increase in deposition rate was achieved. Stacking of multiple layers demonstrated the ability to create fully dense, three-dimensional structures, with directional metallurgical grain growth and uniform chemical structure.

Interface study by dual-beam FIB-TEM in a pressureless infiltrated Al(Mg)-Al2O3 interpenetrating composite.

This paper considers the microstructures of an Al(Mg)-Al(2)O(3) interpenetrating composite produced by a pressureless infiltration technique. It is well known that the governing principle in pressureless infiltration in Al-Al(2)O(3) system is the wettability between the molten metal and the ceramic phase; however, the infiltration mechanism is still not well understood. The objective of this research was to observe the metal-ceramic interface to understand the infiltration mechanism better. The composite was produced using an Al-8 wt% Mg alloy and 15% dense alumina foams at 915 degrees C in a flowing N(2) atmosphere. After infiltration, the composite was characterized by a series of techniques. Thin-film samples, specifically produced across the Al(Mg)-Al(2)O(3) interface, were prepared using a dual-beam focussed ion beam and subsequently observed using transmission electron microscopy. XRD scan analysis shows that Mg(3)N(2) formed in the foam at the molten alloy-ceramic infiltration front, whereas transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed that fine AlN grains formed at the metal-ceramic interface and MgAl(2)O(4) and MgSi(2) grains formed at specific points. It is concluded that it is the reactions between Al, Mg and the N(2) atmosphere that improve the wettability between molten Al and Al(2)O(3) and induce spontaneous infiltration.

Phase determination and microstructure of oxide scales formed on steel at high temperature.

Even in simple low-alloy steels the oxide scales that form during hot working processes are often a complex mixture of three iron oxide phases: haematite, magnetite and wustite. The mechanical properties, and hence descalability, are intimately linked with phase distribution and microstructure, which in turn are sensitive to both steel composition and oxidation conditions. In this study electron backscatter diffraction in the SEM has been used to characterize the microstructures of oxide scales formed on two compositions of low-alloy steel. The technique can unambiguously differentiate between the candidate phases to provide the phase distribution within the scale. This is used to investigate grain orientation relationships both within and between phase layers. It has been found that the strength of the orientational relationship between the magnetite and wustite layers is dependent on steel composition, and in particular Si content. In a low-Si (0.01 wt%) alloy only a very weak relationship was found to exist for a range of oxidation temperatures (800-1000 degrees C), whereas for the higher Si (0.37 wt%) alloy a strong relationship was observed under the same oxidation conditions. These orientational relationships are particularly important because, in this temperature range, the majority of oxide scale growth occurs at the magnetite/wustite interphase boundary.

Microstructural characterization of autogenous laser welds on 316L stainless steel using EBSD and EDS.

This research is concerned with autogenous welding of 316L stainless steel and the microstructure generated by such a process. Autogenous welding does not require a filler material and in this case relies on an initial shallow melt phase to maintain a conduction limited weld. Essentially, a high power laser beam traverses the substrate, with the beam shaped by conventional optics, which produces a Gaussian irradiance distribution; or with a diffractive optical element, used to produce a uniform irradiance distribution. Initial results have shown that due to the nature of the heating cycle, complex microstructures are developed. These fine, complicated microstructures cannot be satisfactorily resolved and quantified using standard optical microscopy techniques. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) have been carried out on a number of different microstructures prepared using a range of welding parameters. It is demonstrated that the simultaneous determination of the chemistry and crystallography is a very useful tool for rapid identification of the different phases formed on solidification as a consequence of varying welding procedures.

Microstructural and microtextural characterization of oxide scale on steel using electron backscatter diffraction.

High-temperature oxidation of steel has been extensively studied. The microstructure of iron oxides is, however, not well understood because of the difficulty in imaging it using conventional methods, such as optical or electron microscopy. A knowledge of the oxide microstructure and texture is critical in understanding how the oxide film behaves during high-temperature deformation of steels and more importantly how it can be removed following processing. Recently, electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) has proved to be a powerful technique for distinguishing the different phases in scales. This technique gives valuable information both on the microstructure and on the orientation relationships between the steel and the scale layers. In the current study EBSD has been used to investigate the microstructure and microtexture of iron oxide layers grown on interstitial free steel at different times and temperatures. Heat treatments have been carried out under normal oxidation conditions in order to relate the results to real steel manufacturing in industry. The composition, morphologies, microstructure and microtexture of selected conditions have been studied using EBSD.