Radiological protection of the patient in veterinary medicine and the role of ICRP.

At the request of the Main Commission of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), Task Group 107 (TG107) was set up to consider the issue of radiological protection of the patient in veterinary medicine. TG107, who authored this article, brought together information relating to the use of diagnostic imaging and radiation oncology in veterinary medicine. A number of specific areas were identified that appeared to be appropriate for attention by ICRP. These included the use of dose quantities and units, the need for re-evaluation of stochastic and deterministic risks from ionising radiation in animals, and the growing use of imaging and therapeutic equipment for animals that is little different from that available to humans. TG107 unanimously recommended that it was both appropriate and timely for ICRP to consider and advise on these issues, and the Main Commission agreed. This paper summarises the findings of TG107.

Integration of radiological protection of the environment into the system of radiological protection.

In 2005, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) decided to create a new committee, Committee 5, to take charge of the Commission's work on environmental radiological protection. Committee 5 was tasked with ensuring that the system for environmental radiological protection would be reconcilable with that for radiological protection of humans, and with the approaches used for protection of the environment from other potential hazards. The task was completed over three consecutive terms, resulting in inclusion of protection of the environment in the 2007 Recommendations; in ICRP Publications 108 and 114 where the concept of Reference Animals and Plants (RAPs) and their corresponding data were described; in ICRP Publication 124 on how to apply the system in planned, existing, and emergency exposure situations; and in publications on improved dosimetry (ICRP Publication 136) and ecologically relevant 'weighting factors' for different types of radiation (being finalised for public consultation). With the beginning of this new term, ICRP has moved to integrate its approach to protection of humans and the environment within the system of radiological protection by tasking aspects of an integrated system to each of the committees. Acknowledging that Committee 5 had fulfilled its mission, in 2016, ICRP revised the mandates for the committees effective of 1 July 2017 (the mandate for Committee 3 was also widened to include exposures incurred in veterinary practice). ICRP is moving towards the future, building on the previous successes, and will under these revised mandates approach radiological protection in a holistic manner (an integrated system) where appropriate consideration is given to the understanding of exposures and effects in the environment under different exposure situations and scenarios, and what protective actions might be warranted under such circumstances.

Voxel modeling of rabbits for use in radiological dose rate calculations.

Radiation dose to biota is generally calculated using Monte Carlo simulations of whole body ellipsoids with homogeneously distributed radioactivity throughout. More complex anatomical phantoms, termed voxel phantoms, have been developed to test the validity of these simplistic geometric models. In most voxel models created to date, human tissue composition and density values have been used in lieu of biologically accurate values for non-human biota. This has raised questions regarding variable tissue composition and density effects on the fraction of radioactive emission energy absorbed within tissues (e.g. the absorbed fraction - AF), along with implications for age-dependent dose rates as organisms mature. The results of this study on rabbits indicates that the variation in composition between two mammalian tissue types (e.g. human vs rabbit bones) made little difference in self-AF (SAF) values (within 5% over most energy ranges). However, variable tissue density (e.g. bone vs liver) can significantly impact SAF values. An examination of differences across life-stages revealed increasing SAF with testis and ovary size of over an order of magnitude for photons and several factors for electrons, indicating the potential for increasing dose rates to these sensitive organs as animals mature. AFs for electron energies of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 4.0 MeV and photon energies of 0.01, 0.015, 0.02, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 4.0 MeV are provided for eleven rabbit tissues. The data presented in this study can be used to calculate accurate organ dose rates for rabbits and other small rodents; to aide in extending dose results among different mammal species; and to validate the use of ellipsoidal models for regulatory purposes.

Overview of ICRP Committee 5.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) established Committee 5 in 2005 in response to the need to provide direct demonstration of environmental protection from radiation in accordance with national law and international agreements. The development of the ICRP system for environmental protection was facilitated by research over the previous decades, as well as by ICRP's evaluation of the ethical and philosophical basis for environmental protection as laid out in ICRP Publication 91. The 2007 Recommendations (Publication 103) incorporated environmental protection as one of the integral elements of the radiation protection system. Over a relatively short time, the system has evolved to incorporate a set of 12 Reference Animals and Plants (RAPs), which is a small enough number to develop comprehensive databases for each RAP, but wide ranging enough to provide some insight into radiation impact and protection against such impact, as appropriate, in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. As necessary, the databases can be used to derive supplementary databases for Representative Organisms typical for a particular exposure situation of concern or under study. The system, to date, details biology of the RAPs (Publication 108); outlines transfer factors for estimation of internal concentrations of radionuclides of environmental significance under different situations (Publication 114); provides further information (Publication 108) on dosimetry, biological effects, and derived consideration reference levels (bands of environmental dose rates where potential detrimental effects may deserve attention); and provides information on application of the system in planned, emergency, and existing exposure situations (Publication 124). Currently, a review of experimental determinations of relative biological effectiveness, to guide derivation of specific weighting factors for use in environmental radiation protection if possible and necessary, is being concluded, as is work on improved dosimetry. Further work in this area involves consolidation of databases, recommendations for derivation of specific databases for Representative Organisms on the basis of the RAP data, and recommendations for application of the system to environmental protection in relation to certain human activities of potential environmental concern. Consideration needs to be made for the wider range of ecosystem effects that may be covered in ecological risk assessments, which incorporate the complete suite of stressors that result from human activity, and their effects, to understand the role of radiation effects in this context.

Creation of a voxel phantom of the ICRP reference crab.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has modeled twelve reference animal and plant (RAP) species using simple geometric shapes in Monte-Carlo (MCNP) based simulations. The focus has now shifted to creating voxel phantoms of each RAP in order to estimate doses to biota with a higher degree of confidence. This paper describes the creation of a voxel model of a Dungeness crab from CT images with shell, gills, gonads, hepatopancreas, and heart identified and segmented. Absorbed fractions were tabulated for each organ as a source and target at twelve photon and nine electron energies: 0.01, 0.015, 0.02, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 4.0 MeV for photons and 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 4.0 MeV for electrons. AFs whose error exceeded 5% are marked with an underline in the data tables; AFs whose error was higher than 10% were excluded, and are shown in the tabulated data as a dashed line. A representative sample of the data is shown in Figs. 3-8; the entire data set is available as an electronic appendix. The results are consistent with previous small organism studies (Kinase, 2008; Stabin et al., 2006), and suggest that AF values are highly dependent on source organ location and mass.

The new VARSKIN 4 photon skin dosimetry model.

A new photon skin dosimetry model, described here, was developed as the basis for the enhanced VARSKIN 4 thin tissue dosimetry code. The model employs a point-kernel method that accounts for charged particle build-up, photon attenuation and off-axis scatter. Early comparisons of the new model against Monte Carlo particle transport simulations show that VARSKIN 4 is highly accurate for very small sources on the skin surface, although accuracy at shallow depths is compromised for radiation sources that are on clothing or otherwise elevated from the skin surface. Comparison results are provided for a one-dimensional point source, a two-dimensional disc source and three-dimensional sphere, cylinder and slab sources. For very small source dimensions and sources in contact with the skin, comparisons reveal that the model is highly predictive. With larger source dimensions, air gaps or the addition of clothing between the source and skin; however, VARSKIN 4 yields over-predictions of dose by as much as a factor of 2 to 3. These cursory Monte Carlo comparisons confirm that significant accuracy improvements beyond the previous version were achieved for all geometries. Improvements were obtained while retaining the VARSKIN characteristic user convenience and rapid performance.

Relative biological effectiveness and radiation weighting factors in the context of animals and plants.

Radiation weighting factors have long been employed to modify absorbed dose as part of the process of evaluating radiological impact to humans. Their use represents an acknowledgement of the fundamental difference in energy deposition patterns of charged and uncharged particles, and how this can translate into varying degrees of biological impact. Weighting factors used in human radiation protection are derived from a variety of endpoints taken from in-vitro experiments that include human and animal cell lines, as well as in-vivo experiments with animals. Nonetheless, the application of radiation weighting factors in the context of dose assessment of animals and plants is not without some controversy. Specifically, radiation protection of biota has largely focused on limiting deterministic effects, such as reduced reproductive fitness. Consequently, the application of conventional stochastic-based radiation weighting factors (when used for human protection) appears inappropriate. While based on research, radiation weighting factors represent the parsing of extensive laboratory studies on relative biological effectiveness. These studies demonstrate that the magnitude of a biological effect depends not just on dose, but also on other factors including the rate at which the dose is delivered, the type and energy of the radiation delivering the dose, and, most importantly, the endpoint under consideration. This article discusses the efforts taken to develop a logical, transparent, and defensible approach to establishing radiation weighting factors for use in assessing impact to non-human biota, and the challenges found in differentiating stochastic from deterministic impacts.

Development and deployment of an underway radioactive cesium monitor off the Japanese coast near Fukushima Dai-ichi.

A custom radiation monitoring system was developed by Oregon State University at the request of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute to measure radioactive cesium contaminants in the ocean waters near Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant. The system was to be used on board the R/V Ka'imikai-O-Kanaloa during a 15 d research cruise to provide real-time approximations of radionuclide concentration and alert researchers to the possible occurrence of highly elevated radionuclide concentrations. A NaI(Tl) scintillation detector was coupled to a custom-built compact digital spectroscopy system and suspended within a sealed tank of continuously flowing seawater. A series of counts were acquired within an energy region corresponding to the main photopeak of (137)Cs. The system was calibrated using known quantities of radioactive (134)Cs and (137)Cs in a ratio equating to that present at the reactors' ocean outlet. The response between net count rate and concentration of (137)Cs was then used to generate temporal and geographic plots of (137)Cs concentration throughout the research cruise in Japanese coastal waters. The concentration of (137)Cs was low but detectable, reaching a peak of 3.8 ± 0.2 Bq/L.

Generic approaches to transfer.

A review of methods which have been used to describe and predict transfer of radionuclides in biota was undertaken. The intent was to identify approaches that might prove useful in extending predictive estimates to other organisms and environments. Empirical approaches, such as found in the use of transfer factors, were examined. Kinetic methodologies were also presented. Allometric functions, with their ability to make broad generalizations, were also discussed. Data from several earlier radioecological assessments were tested for their potential utility in developing allometric relationships, with the result implying that such an approach might prove useful.

Dose limits for man do not adequately protect the ecosystem.

As has been noted by both of our participants, it is interesting to see that their views approached agreement during the course of the debate. This is not altogether unexpected since the topic is on that has many facets. It is fair to say that protecting man is an appropriate starting point for the protection of other more, or less, radiosensitive life forms sharing the planet with us. That there may be special situations requiring attention has been recognized by both of our participants. That the ICRP recognizes the need for further work on this topic is encouraging for ourselves as well as the 'bugs and bunnies'.

A kinetic-allometric approach to predicting tissue radionuclide concentrations for biota.

Allometry, or the biology of scaling, is the study of size and its consequences. It has become a useful tool for comparative physiology. There are several allometric equations that relate body size to many parameters, including ingestion rate, lifespan, inhalation rate, home range and more. While these equations were originally derived from empirical observations, there is a growing body of evidence that these relationships have their origins in the dynamics of energy transport mechanisms. As part of an ongoing effort by the Department of Energy in developing generic methods for evaluating radiation dose to biota, we have examined the utility of applying allometric techniques to predicting radionuclide tissue concentration across a large range of terrestrial and riparian species of animals. This particular study examined 23 radionuclides. Initial investigations suggest that the allometric approach can provide a useful tool to derive limiting values of uptake and elimination factors for animals.

An experimental determination of FIDLER scanning efficiency at specific speeds.

As part of mass remediation efforts across the country some radiation detection systems are now being used in conjunction with data logging and positioning system technology. These systems can be used in the scanning mode, simultaneously recording both count rate and position. Following data analysis, hot spots can be identified and remediation efforts for that particular area can commence. This technique has been used for nearly a decade and has had success in accelerating preliminary remediation work while also reducing potential clean up costs. However, little work has been completed on how the sensitivity of these detection systems are affected when used with this technology because while the intrinsic efficiency of the detector is constant, scanning efficiency can vary depending on data sampling time and scanning speed. To better understand scanning efficiency for a detector attached to such a system, a device was developed which moved soil at a constant speed underneath a Field Instrument for Detecting Low Energy Radiation (FIDLER). Count rate was measured every 2 s as a 241Am source passed under the detector at speeds ranging from approximately 10 cm s(-1) to 100 cm s(-1). A surface source and a buried source were both examined. Experimental detection efficiency was calculated and compared to Monte Carlo generated results. For the surface source, the efficiency dropped to a value of approximately 1% at 100 cm s(-1). At the same speed, the buried source had a detection efficiency of 0.1%, primarily due to attenuation of the low energy photon in the soil. It was also noted that the response time of the meter affected the scanning efficiency. With a response time set at 1 s, higher average efficiencies were recorded but with a large standard deviation from the mean. Higher response time setting had the effect of reducing the variability of the reading but also reducing efficiency.

A dose reconstruction of 60Co-contaminated window frames in a Taiwanese school.

Since 1992, hundreds of buildings in Taiwan were discovered to have 60Co contamination in the structural rebar. The contamination resulted from improper handling of 60Co-contaminated scrap metal in 1982 and 1983, which subsequently was recycled and used throughout Taiwan. Hsin-hsin Kindergarten school enrolled about 600 students over the 10-y period before the contamination was discovered. Hsin-hsin Kindergarten had three 60Co-contaminated steel window frames with measured dose rates on contact up to 150 microSv h(-1). In this study, a range of potential doses received by the Hsin-hsin Kindergarten students were estimated using ISOSHLD dose modeling software. ISOSHLD is a rapid, inexpensive screening tool to reconstruct dose ranges. To assess the potential risks to habitants of the school for the first year after construction, calculated dose rate ranges of 0.08 microSv h(-1) to 75.38 microSv h(-1) were then applied to the International Commission [corrected] on Radiation Protection 60 nominal detriment coefficients for stochastic effects. Risk estimates ranged from 1.46 x 10(-4) to 7.42 x 10(-4) excess fatal cancers per lifetime.

An innovative technique in scanning land areas with a multi-FIDLER system.

Remediation can be a long and tedious effort. One possible step in this process is the scanning of land to locate elevated areas of radiological contamination. By adapting existing global positioning technology with radiation detection systems, this process can be significantly accelerated. The Field Instrument for Detecting Low Energy Radiation (FIDLER) was used in conjunction with a Global Positioning System (GPS) and Trimble data logger. With this system two different land areas were scanned using two different scanning methods. In the first method, three FIDLERs were attached to a baby jogger and were used to scan a 20-acre site devoid of vegetation. The second technique involved individuals carrying the instruments over a 15-acre site that contained vegetation. Here the FIDLERs were waved in front of the workers in 50-cm arcs. In all cases, radiological and position data were collected by the data loggers. Using these results, accurate maps were generated for each site clearly illustrating areas and spots of elevated activity. By employing this technique over 250,000 data points pertaining to position and count rate were used to map nearly 40 acres of land in under 3 wk.

A comparison between default EGS4 and EGS4 with bound Compton cross sections when scattering occurs in bone and fat.

Computer simulation packages are important tools in understanding how radiation interacts with matter. EGS4 is a photon/electron Monte Carlo transport program that is employed in the health/medical physics field. Due to its high energy roots, the default version of EGS4 treats all electrons as unbound and therefore uses the Klein-Nishina cross section formula to determine Compton scattering angle distributions and the probability of Compton scattering through the branching ratio. Researchers have created improvements to EGS4 that account for the bound Compton cross section as well as other scattering properties. Numerical experiments were performed on both the default code and modified EGS4 to examine output differences in low Z materials such as fat and bone. Four incident photon energies were considered. At higher energies (500 keV and 1 MeV) the default and modified EGS4 codes produced results within 2sigma of one another. At 50 and 100 keV differences in scattering angle distribution and branching ratio values were found. In addition, the number of photoelectric absorptions and Compton scatters were also different at these energies.