Thermal profiles of Cicindelidia haemorrhagica (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) activity in hot springs in Yellowstone National Park.

The wetsalts tiger beetle, Cicindelidia haemorrhagica (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae), is found in several active thermal hot spring areas in Yellowstone National Park (YNP) where substrate surface temperatures can exceed 50 °C. However, relationships between surface temperatures and the time adults spend on them remain poorly understood. Therefore, we characterized thermal profiles of Dragon Spring and Rabbit Creek, 2 thermally active research sites containing C. haemorrhagica in YNP, to quantify the time adults spend at different surface temperatures. We took 58 thermal video recordings of adults over 6 total days of observation ranging from 10 to 15 min for each adult. Thermal video analysis results indicated a positive relationship between the total time adult beetles spent on surface temperatures from Dragon Spring and Rabbit Creek as temperatures increased from 20 °C. Once surface temperatures exceeded 40 °C, the total time spent at those surface temperatures declined. Adults were recorded on substrates exceeding 50 °C at one of the 2 research locations. Rabbit Creek had substantially more instances of adults present with surface temperatures exceeding 40 °C, including one individual on a surface temperature of 61.5 °C. There were 3 instances of beetles spending more than 4 min at a particular surface temperature, all within the preferred range of 30-40 °C. Our thermal profile results and previous behavioral observations suggest that adults may be resistant to the heat produced from the thermal waters that influence the substrate temperatures but may not be subject to high surface temperatures as previously reported.

Heavy metal movement through insect food chains in pristine thermal springs of Yellowstone National Park.

Yellowstone National Park thermal features regularly discharge various heavy metals and metalloids. These metals are taken up by microorganisms that often form mats in thermal springs. These microbial mats also serve as food sources for invertebrate assemblages. To examine how heavy metals move through insect food webs associated with hot springs, two sites were selected for this study. Dragon-Beowulf Hot Springs, acid-sulfate chloride springs, have a pH of 2.9, water temperatures above 70 °C, and populations of thermophilic bacterial, archaeal, and algal mats. Rabbit Creek Hot Springs, alkaline springs, have a pH of up to 9, some water temperatures in excess of 60 °C, and are populated with thermophilic and phototrophic bacterial mats. Mats in both hydrothermal systems form the trophic base and support active metal transfer to terrestrial food chains. In both types of springs, invertebrates bioaccumulated heavy metals including chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, cadmium, mercury, tin and lead, and the metalloids arsenic, selenium, and antimony resulting from consuming the algal and bacterial mat biomass. At least two orders of magnitude increase in concentrations were observed in the ephydrid shore fly Paracoenia turbida, as compared to the mats for all metals except antimony, mercury, and lead. The highest bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of 729 was observed for chromium. At the other end of the food web, the invertebrate apex predator, Cicindelidia haemorrhagica, had at least a 10-fold BAF for all metals at some location-year combinations, except with antimony. Of other taxa, high BAFs were observed with zinc for Nebria sp. (2180) and for Salda littoralis (1080). This accumulation, occurring between primary producer and primary consumer trophic levels at both springs, is biomagnified through the trophic web. These observations suggest trace metals enter the geothermal food web through the microbial mat community and are then transferred through the food chain. Also, while bioaccumulation of arsenic is uncommon, we observed five instances of increases near or exceeding 10-fold: Odontomyia sp. larvae (13.6), P. turbida (34.8), C. haemorrhagica (9.7), Rhagovelia distincta (16.3), and Ambrysus mormon (42.8).

Trade-Offs between Temperature and Fitness in Euschistus heros (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae): Implications for Mass Rearing and Field Management.

The brown stink bug, Euschistus heros (Fabricius, 1798) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is one of the most abundant soybean stink bug pests in Brazil. Temperature is a key factor that affects its development and reproduction, and fluctuating temperatures may impact the development and reproduction of E. heros differently from those under constant temperatures. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of constant and fluctuating temperature on the biological characteristics of E. heros in three successive generations. Treatments consisted of six constant temperatures (19 °C, 22 °C, 25 °C, 28 °C, 31 °C and 34 °C) and four fluctuating temperatures (25:21 °C, 28:24 °C, 31:27 °C, and 34:30 °C) evaluated for three successive generations. Second-stage nymphs were evaluated daily, and after they reached the adult stage, they were separated by sex, and the individual weight (mg) and pronotum size (mm) were recorded. After pair formation, eggs were collected to evaluate the pre-oviposition period, total number of eggs, and egg viability. The duration of the nymphal stage was reduced with an increase in both constant and fluctuating temperatures; however, at constant temperatures of 19 °C, 31 °C and 34 °C and fluctuating temperatures of 28:24 °C, there was no reproduction in adults. The base temperature and total degree day requirement for nymphal development were 15.5 °C and 197.4 dd, respectively. Pre-oviposition period (d), number of eggs per female, and viability of eggs (%) were affected by temperature across the generations. The multiple decrement life table analysis revealed that mortality was highest during the molting of the second-stage nymphs. These findings have important implications for E. heros' laboratory mass-rearing programs and for its management in fields.

Stage Transitions in Lucilia sericata and Phormia regina (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and Implications for Forensic Science.

Blow fly development rates have become a key factor in estimating the postmortem interval where blow flies are among the first decomposers to occur on a body. Because the use of blow fly development requires short time durations and high accuracy, stage transition distributions are essential for proper development modeling. However, detailed examinations of stage transitions are not available for any blow fly species. Consequently, we examined this issue in two blow fly species: Lucilia sericata and Phormia regina. Transitions for all life stages across all measured temperatures were normally distributed. Use of probit analysis allowed determination of 50% transition points and associated measures of variation (i.e., standard errors). The greatest variation was noted for the L2-L3, L3-L3m, and L3m-P stage transitions. These results invalidate the notion that largest maggots should be preferentially collected for determining current maggot population stage, and further call into question the relationship between intrinsic variation and potential geographic variation in development rates.

Habitat Characteristics, Distribution, and Abundance of Cicindelidia haemorrhagica (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) in Yellowstone National Park.

We observed the tiger beetle species, Cicindelidia haemorrhagica (LeConte), foraging in and reproducing near the thermal pools of Yellowstone National Park (YNP). Although this species was recorded in YNP more than 130 years ago, its distribution, ecology, and association with thermal features are unknown. Therefore, we examined the distribution and habitat characteristics of C. haemorrhagica and evaluated methods for studying its abundance. Given the extreme environments in which these beetles live, typical methods to estimate abundance are challenging. We used a series of presence/absence studies and observations to assess distribution and recorded temperature and pH measurements to determine habitat characteristics. We also conducted visual counts, light trapping, and mark/recapture experiments to assess abundance. The inability to capture C. haemorrhagica with lights led to a phototaxis experiment, which showed minimal attraction to light. Cicindelidia haemorrhagica was found throughout YNP, but it was exclusively associated with thermal springs. The thermal springs ranged from pH 2.7 to 9.0 with temperatures from 29.1 to 75.0 °C and had varying metal concentrations in soil and water. However, all thermal springs with C. haemorrhagica had barren soil with a gradual slope toward the thermal water. Specifically, habitats were thermal pools with gradual margins (a less than five-degree slope) and thermal (i.e., heated) soils for larval burrows by thermal springs or pools. Population sizes of C. haemorrhagica ranged between 500 and 1500 individuals based on visual counts.

Do patterns of insect mortality in temperate and tropical zones have broader implications for insect ecology and pest management?

Background: Understanding how biotic and abiotic factors affect insect mortality is crucial for both fundamental knowledge of population ecology and for successful pest management. However, because these factors are difficult to quantify and interpret, patterns and dynamics of insect mortality remain unclear, especially comparative mortality across climate zones. Life table analysis provides robust information for quantifying population mortality and population parameters. Methods: In this study, we estimated cause-of-death probabilities and irreplaceable mortality (the portion of mortality that cannot be replaced by another cause or combination of causes) using a Multiple Decrement Life Table (MDLT) analysis of 268 insect life tables from 107 peer-reviewed journal articles. In particular, we analyzed insect mortality between temperate and tropical climate zones. Results: Surprisingly, our results suggest that non-natural enemy factors (abiotic) were the major source of insect mortality in both temperate and tropical zones. In addition, we observed that irreplaceable mortality from predators in tropical zones was 3.7-fold greater than in temperate zones. In contrast, irreplaceable mortality from parasitoids and pathogens was low and not different between temperate and tropical zones. Surprisingly, we did not observe differences in natural enemy and non-natural enemy factors based on whether the insect species was native or non-native. We suggest that characterizing predation should be a high priority in tropical conditions. Furthermore, because mortality from parasitoids was low in both tropical and temperate zones, this mortality needs to be better understood, especially as it relates to biological control and integrated pest management.

Yield Response of Determinate Chipping Potato to Artificial Defoliation.

The relationship between canopy defoliation by insects and yield loss in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) has been extensively researched. However, detailed analysis of varieties with different properties and examination of methods of defoliation are still lacking. Absence of research results has led many producers to use a very conservative economic threshold (ET) of 10% defoliation in the management of insect defoliators. A series of leaf removal experiments was conducted on a determinate chipping variety of potato at different plant stages. In 2002, the highest levels of defoliation induced upon the plant canopy were 50, 30, and 75% for tuber initiation, full bloom, and plant maturity stages, respectively. In 2003, defoliation levels were increased to 70, 80, and 90% for tuber initiation, full bloom, and plant maturity, respectively. Total yield was unaffected, and no significant changes in market sized yield, or number of marketable tubers were observed at any growth stage in either year. Because the determinate variety showed remarkable ability to recover from substantial defoliation, two different methods of defoliation: hand cut (cutting the edge of leaves with scissors while avoiding the midrib) and hole punching (hole-punching leaf tissue [15.08-mm diameter] while avoiding midrib) were tested. Although total yield was unaffected, marketable yield and small potato yield were reduced, Thus, although defoliation methods must be considered, a 10% defoliation ET is exceedingly conservative and an ET of 60% for all stages of determinate chipping potato could be adopted by growers.

Competition Among Three Forensically Important Blow Fly Species (Diptera: Calliphoridae): Phormia regina, Lucilia sericata, and Chrysomya rufifacies.

Avoiding competition is thought to explain insect successional patterns on carrion, but few studies have looked at competition directly. We use replacement series experiments with three species of blow flies: Phormia regina (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera:Calliphoridae), and Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera:Calliphoridae) to characterize competitive relationships. From experimental results, P. regina showed a significant competitive advantage over L. sericata. Infestation of carrion differs between L. sericata and P. regina; specifically, L. sericata oviposits on carrion without any delay, while P. regina typically delays oviposition. Our findings are consistent with the notion that differences in oviposition times represent a mechanism for L. sericata to avoid potential competition. Competition by C. rufifacies differs since C. rufifacies, in the event of a limited food supply, will prey on other maggot species. In replacement series experiments, C. rufifacies killed all P. regina in mixed treatments, representing an ultimate competitive advantage. In the United States, these two species do not often overlap because of differences in seasonal distribution. However, with climate change, phenological separation may grow less distinct. Surprisingly, in replacement series experiments with C. rufifacies and L. sericata, no competitive interactions were observed. In other studies, L. sericata has been shown to form clusters away from predaceous maggots, allowing improved survival, which may account for the absence of predation by C. rufifacies. Finally, this study shows that replacement series models are useful in measuring competition, supporting the notion that interspecific competition between necrophagous insect species may have driven life history traits of those species.

Photosynthesis, yield and raw material quality of sugarcane injured by multiple pests.

Understanding sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) response to multiple pest injury, sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis) and spittlebug (Mahanarva fimbriolata), is essential to make better management decisions. Moreover, the consequences of both pests on the sugarcane raw material quality have not yet been studied. A field experiment was performed in São Paulo State, Brazil, where sugarcane plants were exposed to pests individually or in combination. Plots consisted of a 2-m long row of caged sugarcane plants. Photosynthesis was measured once every 3 months (seasonal measurement). Yield and sugar production were assessed. The measured photosynthesis rate was negatively affected by both borer and spittlebug infestations. Photosynthesis reduction was similar on plants infested by both pests as well as by spittlebug individual infestation. Plants under spittlebug infestation resulted in yield losses and represented 17.6% (individual infestation) and 15.5% (multiple infestations). The sucrose content and the sucrose yield per area were reduced when plants were infested by multiple pests or spittlebug.

Tolerance: the forgotten child of plant resistance.

Plant resistance against insect herbivory has greatly focused on antibiosis, whereby the plant has a deleterious effect on the herbivore, and antixenosis, whereby the plant is able to direct the herbivore away from it. Although these two types of resistance may reduce injury and yield loss, they can produce selection pressures on insect herbivores that lead to pest resistance. Tolerance, on the other hand, is a more sustainable pest management strategy because it involves only a plant response and therefore does not cause evolution of resistance in target pest populations. Despite its attractive attributes, tolerance has been poorly studied and understood. In this critical, interpretive review, we discuss tolerance to insect herbivory and the biological and socioeconomic factors that have limited its use in plant resistance and integrated pest management. First, tolerance is difficult to identify, and the mechanisms conferring it are poorly understood. Second, the genetics of tolerance are mostly unknown. Third, several obstacles hinder the establishment of high-throughput phenotyping methods for large-scale screening of tolerance. Fourth, tolerance has received little attention from entomologists because, for most, their primary interest, research training, and funding opportunities are in mechanisms which affect pest biology, not plant biology. Fifth, the efforts of plant resistance are directed at controlling pest populations rather than managing plant stress. We conclude this paper by discussing future research and development activities.

Cleaning Puparia for Forensic Analysis.

We tested procedures for removing adipocere from insect samples to allow identification. An acceptable procedure was determined: (i) Samples were sorted in petri dishes with 75% alcohol to remove any larvae, adult insects, or other soft-bodied material. (ii) Samples of up to 24 puparia were placed in a vial with 15 mL of 95% acetone, capped, and vortexed for a total of 30-90 sec in 10- to 15-sec bursts. This step removed large masses of adipocere or soil from specimen. (iii) Specimens were removed from acetone and placed in a vial of 15 mL of 2% potassium hydroxide (KOH) and vortexed in 10- to 15-sec bursts until all puparia appeared clean (with our samples this required a total of 60-120 sec). (iv) Specimens were removed from the 2% KOH, placed in 75% ethanol, and examined microscopically. (v) Material was stored in 75% ethanol for identification and long-term preservation.

Development modeling of Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

The relationship between insect development and temperature has been well established and has a wide range of uses, including the use of blow flies for postmortem (PMI) interval estimations in death investigations. To use insects in estimating PMI, we must be able to determine the insect age at the time of discovery and backtrack to time of oviposition. Unfortunately, existing development models of forensically important insects are only linear approximations and do not take into account the curvilinear properties experienced at extreme temperatures. A series of experiments were conducted with Lucilia sericata, a forensically important blow fly species, that met the requirements needed to create statistically valid development models. Experiments were conducted over 11 temperatures (7.5 to 32.5 °C, at 2.5 °C) with a 16:8 L:D cycle. Experimental units contained 20 eggs, 10 g beef liver, and 2.5 cm of pine shavings. Each life stage (egg to adult) had five sampling times. Each sampling time was replicated four times, for a total of 20 measurements per life stage. For each sampling time, the cups were pulled from the chambers and the stage of each maggot was documented morphologically through posterior spiracle slits and cephalopharyngeal skeletal development. Data were normally distributed with the later larval stages (L3f, L3m) having the most variation within and transitioning between stages. The biological minimum was between 7.5 °C and 10 °C, with little egg development and no egg emergence at 7.5 °C. Temperature-induced mortality was highest from 10.0 to 17.5 °C and 32.5 °C. The development data generated illustrates the advantages of large datasets in modeling Lucilia sericata development and the need for curvilinear models in describing development at environmental temperatures near the biological minima and maxima.

Behavioral niche partitioning in a sympatric tiger beetle assemblage and implications for the endangered Salt Creek tiger beetle.

How behavioral patterns are related to niche partitioning is an important question in understanding how closely related species within ecological communities function. Behavioral niche partitioning associated with thermoregulation is well documented in tiger beetles as a group. Co-occurring species of salt flat tiger beetles have adapted many thermoregulatory behaviors to cope with this harsh ecosystem. On first examination these beetles appear to occur in overlapping microhabitats and therefore compete for resources. To determine if behavioral niche partitioning is allowing multiple species to occur within the same harsh salt flat ecosystem we observed Cicindela nevadica lincolniana, Cicindela circumpicta, Cicindela fulgida, and Cicindela togata between 8:00 h and 21:00 h and recorded all behaviors related to thermoregulation using a digital voice recorder. Results of this study strongly indicate that competition among these species for resources has been reduced by the adaptation of different thermoregulatory behaviors such as spending time in shallow water, avoiding the sun during the hottest parts of the day, and by positioning their body against or away from the soil. The endangered C. n. lincolniana appears to rely most heavily on the shallow water of seeps for their diurnal foraging behavior (potentially limiting their foraging habitat), but with the advantage of allowing foraging during the hottest times of the day when potential competitors are less frequent. Ironically, this association also may help explain C. n. lincolniana's susceptibility to extinction: beyond the loss of saline wetlands generally, limited seeps and pools even within remaining saline habitat may represent a further habitat limitation within an already limited habitat.

Changes in the morphology and presumptive chemistry of impact and pooled bloodstain patterns by Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

Bloodstain pattern analysis can be critical to accurate crime scene reconstruction. However, bloodstain patterns can be altered in the presence of insects and can confound crime scene reconstruction. To address this problem, we conducted a series of controlled laboratory experiments to investigate the effect of Lucilia sericata (Meigen) on impact bloodstains and pooled bloodstains in association with three combinations of common surfaces (linoleum/painted drywall, wood floor/wallpaper, and carpet/wood paneling). L. sericata fed from the pooled bloodstains and added insect stains through regurgitation and defecation of consumed blood. L. sericata formed defecatory trails of insect stains that indicated directionality. Defecatory stains fluoresced when viewed at 465 nm with an orange filter. These observations differed from Calliphora vicina insect stains because feeding on blood spatter was not observed and trails of insect stains were formed by L. sericata. The fluorescence of defecatory stains can be used as a method to detect insect stains and discriminate them from real bloodstains.

Carcass mass can influence rate of decomposition and release of ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen into gravesoil.

To investigate the use of ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen (NRN) in gravesoil to estimate early postmortem interval (PMI), we conducted an experiment to decompose swine (Sus scrofa) carcasses of contrasting mass (∼1 kg, ∼20 kg, ∼40 kg, ∼50 kg). Carcasses were placed on the soil surface during June 2007 to monitor mass loss and the concentration of gravesoil NRN over an interval of 15 days. Carcasses of a mass ≤ 20 kg decomposed more rapidly than larger carcasses. However, 1 kg carcasses were associated with a slower release of NRN into gravesoil but a greater concentration of NRN per kg carcass (NRN(C)). We conclude that carcass mass can affect the rate of decomposition and release of NRN into gravesoil, which reflects an interaction between carcass volume and blow fly colonization. Furthermore, we conclude that neonatal carcasses require a different equation than larger carcasses when using gravesoil chemistry to estimate PMI.

Effect of investigator disturbance in experimental forensic entomology: carcass biomass loss and temperature.

Often carrion decomposition studies are conducted using a single carcass or a few carcasses sampled repeatedly through time to reveal trends in succession community composition. Measurements of biomass and other abiotic parameters (e.g., temperature) are often collected on the same carcasses but are rarely a focal point of the studies. This study investigated the effects that repeated sampling during experiments have on the decomposition of carrion, measured as both gross biomass (carcass plus fauna) and net biomass (carcass only), on carcasses disturbed on every visit (with weighing only or also with the collection of fauna) and on carcasses disturbed only once. Each trial lasted at least 21 days, with samples taken in triplicate. Rat carcasses used in this study were placed in the field on the same day and either weighed on every visit or ignored until a given day. Internal and ambient air temperatures were recorded on each carcass at the time of sampling and on undisturbed carcasses using temperature loggers. The presence of succession fauna did not result in significant biomass loss on most days; however, there were individual days early in decomposition (days 3 through 6) when the succession fauna comprised a large portion of the gross biomass. With the exception of biomass loss by the emigration of maggots on days 4 and 5, neither repeated weighing of the carcasses nor repeated weighing and faunal sampling of the carcasses statistically affected the rate of biomass loss. Internal temperatures of carcasses sampled repeatedly were frequently 2-5°C lower than those that had not been disturbed, and ambient temperatures differed significantly depending on the location of measurement device. Results indicate that methods used historically for biomass loss determination in experimental forensic entomology studies are adequate, but further refinements to experimental methodology are desirable.

Decomposed flesh as a vitellogenic protein source for the forensically important Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

For the carrion-feeding blow flies, a common source of vitellogenic protein are the carcasses that also serve as larval substrates. This attraction continues well after the blow flies have ceased to oviposit on the carrion, and it has been assumed that a decomposed cadaver remains a suitable source for vitellogenic protein; however, this assumption has never been tested. To test this hypothesis, blow flies (Lucilia sericata Meigen) were supplied with either fresh or decomposed beef liver as protein sources for vitellogenesis for 5 d. Both treatments produced identical ovarian development, indicating that decomposed flesh remains a suitable protein source for carrion-feeding blow flies. These results support the theory that virgin flies are attracted to cadavers of advanced decomposition as a source of protein.

Mortality risk in insects.

Understanding how and why insect numbers fluctuate through time and space has been a central theme in ecological research for more than a century. Life tables have been used to understand temporal and spatial patterns in insect numbers. In this study, we estimated cause-of-death probabilities for phytophagous insects using multiple decrement life tables and the irreplaceable mortality analytic technique. Multiple decrement life tables were created from 73 insect life tables published from 1954 to 2004. Irreplaceable mortality (the portion of mortality that cannot be replaced by another cause) from pathogens, predators, and parasitoids was 8.6 +/- 7.2, 7.8 +/- 4.9, and 6.2 +/- 1.6%, respectively. In contrast, the mean irreplaceable mortality from all non-natural enemy mortality factors (mortality from factors other than natural enemies) was 35.1 +/- 4.4%. Irreplaceable mortality from natural enemies was significantly lower compared with non-natural enemy factors. Our results may partially explain cases of unsuccessful efficacy in classical biological control, after successful establishment, by showing low irreplaceable mortality for natural enemies, including 5.2 +/- 1.6% for introduced natural enemies. We suggest that the environment (i.e., the degree of environmental stability) influences the magnitude of the irreplaceable mortality from natural enemies. Our results lead to several testable hypotheses and emphasize that it is not possible to estimate the effect of any mortality factor without considering its interaction with competing mortality factors, which has far-reaching consequences for population biology and applied ecology.

Physiological and biochemical responses of resistant and susceptible wheat to injury by Russian wheat aphid.

We examined the physiological and biochemical responses of resistant ('Halt' and 'Prairie Red') and susceptible ('TAM 107') wheat, Triticum aestivum L., to injury by the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko). Photosynthetic capacity was evaluated by measuring assimilation/internal CO2 (A/Ci) curves, chlorophyll fluorescence, chlorophyll, and nonstructural carbohydrate content. Total protein and peroxidase specific activity also were determined. No significant differences were detected in chlorophyll concentration between aphid-infested and control TAM 107 plants. The aphid-infested resistant cultivars had similar or significantly higher chlorophyll concentrations compared with their respective control plants. Measurements over time showed that infested Halt plants had delays in photosynthetic senescence, Prairie Red plants had photosynthetic rate changes that were similar to control plants, and TAM 107 plants displayed accelerated photosynthetic senescence patterns. The photochemical and nonphotochemical quenching coefficients were significantly higher in infested Halt plants compared with their respective control plants on day 3. Infested TAM 107 plants had significantly higher photochemical quenching compared with control plants at all times evaluated, and they had significantly higher nonphotochemical quenching on day 3. Throughout the experiment, infested Prairie Red plants exhibited photochemical and nonphotochemical quenching coefficient values that were not significantly different from control plants. Total protein content was not significantly different between aphid-infested and control plants for all cultivars. Differences between physiological responses of infested susceptible and resistant cultivars, particularly temporal changes in photosynthetic activity, imply that resistant Halt and Prairie Red wheat tolerate some impacts of aphid injury on photosynthetic integrity.

Maggot development during morgue storage and its effect on estimating the post-mortem interval.

When insect evidence is obtained during autopsy, forensic entomologists make decisions regarding the effects of low-temperature (-1 degrees C to 4 degrees C) storage of the body and associated insects when estimating the post-mortem interval (PMI). To determine the effects of storage in a morgue cooler on the temperature of maggot masses, temperatures inside and outside of body bags containing a human cadaver and porcine cadavers (seven replicates) were measured during storage. Temperatures remained significantly higher (p<0.05) inside of the body bags relative to the cooler, and remained at levels sufficient for maggot feeding and development. If the assumption that no insect development takes place during preautopsy refrigeration is made, potential error rates in PMI estimation of 8.6-12.8% occur. The potential for blow fly larvae to undergo significant development while being stored in the morgue is a possibility that forensic entomologists should consider during an investigation involving samples collected from autopsy. Case and experimental evidence also demonstrate that substantial tissue loss can occur from maggot feeding during morgue storage.