Cognitive Control Structures in the Imitation Learning of Spatial Sequences and Rhythms-An fMRI Study.

Imitation learning involves the acquisition of novel motor patterns based on action observation (AO). We used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to study the imitation learning of spatial sequences and rhythms during AO, motor imagery (MI), and imitative execution in nonmusicians and musicians. While both tasks engaged the fronto-parietal mirror circuit, the spatial sequence task recruited posterior parietal and dorsal premotor regions more strongly. The rhythm task involved an additional network for auditory working memory. This partial dissociation supports the concept of task-specific mirror mechanisms. Two regions of cognitive control were identified: 1) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) was found to be more strongly activated during MI of novel spatial sequences, which allowed us to extend the 2-level model of imitation learning by Buccino et al. (2004) to spatial sequences. 2) During imitative execution of both tasks, the posterior medial frontal cortex was robustly activated, along with the DLPFC, which suggests that both regions are involved in the cognitive control of imitation learning. The musicians' selective behavioral advantage for rhythm imitation was reflected cortically in enhanced sensory-motor processing during AO and by the absence of practice-related activation differences in DLPFC during rhythm execution.

Indirect MRI of 17 o-labeled water using steady-state sequences: Signal simulation and preclinical experiment.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have been reported for T2 -weighted indirect 17 O imaging. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: To evaluate the feasibility of steady-state sequences for indirect 17 O brain imaging. STUDY TYPE: Signal simulation, phantom measurements, and prospective animal experiments were performed in accordance with the institutional guidelines for animal experiments. POPULATION/SUBJECTS/PHANTOM/SPECIMEN/ANIMAL MODEL: Signal simulations of balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP) were performed for concentrations of 17 O ranging from 0.037-1.600%. Phantom measurements with concentrations of 17 O water ranging from 0.037-1.566% were also conducted. Six healthy beagle dogs were scanned with intravenous administration of 20% 17 O-labeled water (1 mL/kg). FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: Dynamic 3D-bSSFP scans were performed at 3T MRI. 17 O-labeled water was injected 60 seconds after the scan start, and the total scan duration was 5 minutes. ASSESSMENT: Based on the result of signal simulation and phantom measurement, signal changes in the beagle dogs were measured and converted into 17 O concentrations. STATISTICAL TESTS: The 17 O concentrations were averaged for every 15 seconds, and compared to the baseline (30-45 sec) with Dunnett's multiple comparison tests. RESULTS: Signal simulation revealed that the relationships between 17 O concentration and the natural logarithm of relative signals were linear. The intraclass correlation coefficient between relative signals in phantom measurement and signal simulations was 0.974. In the animal experiments, significant increases in 17 O concentration (P < 0.05) were observed 60 seconds after the injection of 17 O. At the end of scanning, mean respective 17 O concentrations of 0.084 ± 0.026%, 0.117 ± 0.038, 0.082 ± 0.037%, and 0.049 ± 0.004% were noted for the cerebral cortex, cerebellar cortex, cerebral white matter, and ventricle. DATA CONCLUSION: Dynamic steady-state sequences were feasible for indirect 17 O imaging, and absolute quantification was possible. This method can be applied for the measurement of permeability and blood flow in the brain, and for kinetic analysis of cerebrospinal fluid. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2 Technical Efficacy: Stage 1 J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2018;47:1373-1379.

Indirect Proton MR Imaging and Kinetic Analysis of 17O-Labeled Water Tracer in the Brain.

PURPOSE: The feasibility of steady-state sequences for 17O imaging was evaluated based on a kinetic analysis of the brain parenchyma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The institutional review board approved this prospective study with written informed consent. Dynamic 2D or 3D steady-state sequences were performed in five and nine participants, respectively, with different parameters using a 3T scanner. During two consecutive dynamic scans, saline was intravenously administered for control purposes in the first scan, and 20% 17O-labeled water (1 mL/Kg) was administered in the second scan. Signal changes relative to the baseline were calculated, and kinetic analyses of the curves were conducted for all voxels. Region of interest analysis was performed in the brain parenchyma, choroid plexus, and CSF spaces. RESULTS: Average signal drops were significantly larger in the 17O group than in the controls for most of the imaging parameters. Different kinetic parameters were observed between the brain parenchyma and CSF spaces. Average and maximum signal drops were significantly larger in the CSF spaces and choroid plexus than in the brain parenchyma. Bolus arrival, time to peak, and the first moment of dynamic curves of 17O in the CSF space were delayed compared to that in the brain parenchyma. Significant differences between the ventricle and subarachnoid space were also noted. CONCLUSION: Steady-state sequences are feasible for indirect 17O imaging with reasonable temporal resolution; this result is potentially important for the analysis of water kinetics and aquaporin function for several disorders.

Neural mechanisms underlying sound-induced visual motion perception: An fMRI study.

Studies of crossmodal interactions in motion perception have reported activation in several brain areas, including those related to motion processing and/or sensory association, in response to multimodal (e.g., visual and auditory) stimuli that were both in motion. Recent studies have demonstrated that sounds can trigger illusory visual apparent motion to static visual stimuli (sound-induced visual motion: SIVM): A visual stimulus blinking at a fixed location is perceived to be moving laterally when an alternating left-right sound is also present. Here, we investigated brain activity related to the perception of SIVM using a 7T functional magnetic resonance imaging technique. Specifically, we focused on the patterns of neural activities in SIVM and visually induced visual apparent motion (VIVM). We observed shared activations in the middle occipital area (V5/hMT), which is thought to be involved in visual motion processing, for SIVM and VIVM. Moreover, as compared to VIVM, SIVM resulted in greater activation in the superior temporal area and dominant functional connectivity between the V5/hMT area and the areas related to auditory and crossmodal motion processing. These findings indicate that similar but partially different neural mechanisms could be involved in auditory-induced and visually-induced motion perception, and neural signals in auditory, visual, and, crossmodal motion processing areas closely and directly interact in the perception of SIVM.

Comparison of Different Post-Processing Algorithms for Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast Perfusion Imaging of Cerebral Gliomas.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the present study was to compare different software algorithms for processing DSC perfusion images of cerebral tumors with respect to i) the relative CBV (rCBV) calculated, ii) the cutoff value for discriminating low- and high-grade gliomas, and iii) the diagnostic performance for differentiating these tumors. METHODS: Following approval of institutional review board, informed consent was obtained from all patients. Thirty-five patients with primary glioma (grade II, 9; grade III, 8; and grade IV, 18 patients) were included. DSC perfusion imaging was performed with 3-Tesla MRI scanner. CBV maps were generated by using 11 different algorithms of four commercially available software and one academic program. rCBV of each tumor compared to normal white matter was calculated by ROI measurements. Differences in rCBV value were compared between algorithms for each tumor grade. Receiver operator characteristics analysis was conducted for the evaluation of diagnostic performance of different algorithms for differentiating between different grades. RESULTS: Several algorithms showed significant differences in rCBV, especially for grade IV tumors. When differentiating between low- (II) and high-grade (III/IV) tumors, the area under the ROC curve (Az) was similar (range 0.85-0.87), and there were no significant differences in Az between any pair of algorithms. In contrast, the optimal cutoff values varied between algorithms (range 4.18-6.53). CONCLUSIONS: rCBV values of tumor and cutoff values for discriminating low- and high-grade gliomas differed between software packages, suggesting that optimal software-specific cutoff values should be used for diagnosis of high-grade gliomas.

Rawlsian maximin rule operates as a common cognitive anchor in distributive justice and risky decisions.

Distributive justice concerns the moral principles by which we seek to allocate resources fairly among diverse members of a society. Although the concept of fair allocation is one of the fundamental building blocks for societies, there is no clear consensus on how to achieve "socially just" allocations. Here, we examine neurocognitive commonalities of distributive judgments and risky decisions. We explore the hypothesis that people's allocation decisions for others are closely related to economic decisions for oneself at behavioral, cognitive, and neural levels, via a concern about the minimum, worst-off position. In a series of experiments using attention-monitoring and brain-imaging techniques, we investigated this "maximin" concern (maximizing the minimum possible payoff) via responses in two seemingly disparate tasks: third-party distribution of rewards for others, and choosing gambles for self. The experiments revealed three robust results: (i) participants' distributive choices closely matched their risk preferences-"Rawlsians," who maximized the worst-off position in distributions for others, avoided riskier gambles for themselves, whereas "utilitarians," who favored the largest-total distributions, preferred riskier but more profitable gambles; (ii) across such individual choice preferences, however, participants generally showed the greatest spontaneous attention to information about the worst possible outcomes in both tasks; and (iii) this robust concern about the minimum outcomes was correlated with activation of the right temporoparietal junction (RTPJ), the region associated with perspective taking. The results provide convergent evidence that social distribution for others is psychologically linked to risky decision making for self, drawing on common cognitive-neural processes with spontaneous perspective taking of the worst-off position.

Changes in brain activation induced by visual stimulus during and after propofol conscious sedation: a functional MRI study.

Conscious sedation with propofol sometimes causes amnesia while keeping the patient awake. However, it remains unknown how propofol compromises the memory function. Therefore, we investigated the changes in brain activation induced by visual stimulation during and after conscious sedation with propofol using serial functional MRI. Healthy volunteers received a target-controlled infusion of propofol, and underwent functional MRI scans with a block-design paradigm of visual stimulus before, during, and after conscious sedation. Random-effect model analyses were performed using Statistical Parametric Mapping software. Among the areas showing significant activation in response to the visual stimulus, the visual cortex and fusiform gyrus were significantly suppressed in the sedation session and tended to recover in the early-recovery session of ∼20 min (P<0.001, uncorrected). In contrast, decreased activations of the hippocampus, thalamus, inferior frontal cortex (ventrolateral prefrontal cortex), and cerebellum were maintained during the sedation and early-recovery sessions (P<0.001, uncorrected) and were recovered in the late-recovery session of ∼40 min. Temporal changes in the signals from these areas varied in a manner comparable to that described by the random-effect model analysis (P<0.05, corrected). In conclusion, conscious sedation with propofol may cause prolonged suppression of the activation of memory-related structures, such as the hippocampus, during the early-recovery period, which may lead to transient amnesia.

Two new triterpenoids from the seeds of blackberry (Rubus fructicosus).

Two new ursane-type triterpenoids (1, 2) attached to isopropylidenedioxy group were isolated from the seeds of blackberry (Rubus fructicosus L., Rosaceae) along with two known ursane-type triterpenoids, 2,3-O-isopropylidenyl-2α,3α,19α-trihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid (3) and 1ß-hydroxyeuscaphic acid (4). The chemical structures of 1 and 2 were determined to be 2,3-O-isopropylidene-1ß,2ß,3ß,19α-tetrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid and 1,2-O-isopropylidene-1ß,2α,3α,19α-tetrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid, respectively, based on spectroscopic data. Additionally, their cytotoxic activity towards HL-60 human leukaemia cells was evaluated. Among them, 3 demonstrated a clear cytotoxic activity with 72.8 µM of IC50 value.

Oxygen extraction fraction measurement using quantitative susceptibility mapping: Comparison with positron emission tomography.

The purposes of this study are to establish oxygen extraction fraction (OEF) measurements using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and to compare QSM-OEF data with the gold standard (15)O positron emission tomography (PET). Twenty-six patients with chronic unilateral internal carotid artery or middle cerebral artery stenosis or occlusion, and 15 normal subjects were included. MRI scans were conducted using a 3.0 Tesla scanner with a three-dimensional spoiled gradient recalled sequence. QSM images were created using the morphology-enabled dipole inversion method, and OEF maps were generated from QSM images using extraction of venous susceptibility induced by deoxygenated hemoglobin. Significant correlation of relative OEF ratio to contra-lateral hemisphere between QSM-OEF and PET-OEF was observed (r = 0.62, p < 0.001). The local (intra-section) correlation was also significant (r = 0.52, p < 0.001) in patients with increased PET-OEF. The sensitivity and specificity of OEF increase in QSM was 0.63 (5/8) and 0.89 (16/18), respectively, in comparison with PET. In conclusion, good correlation was achieved between QSM-OEF and PET-OEF in the identification of elevated OEF in affected hemispheres of patients with unilateral chronic steno-occlusive disease.

Optimization of Scan Parameters to Reduce Acquisition Time for Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging at 1.5T.

PURPOSE: To shorten acquisition of diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI) in 1.5-tesla magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, we investigated the effects of the number of b-values, diffusion direction, and number of signal averages (NSA) on the accuracy of DKI metrics. METHODS: We obtained 2 image datasets with 30 gradient directions, 6 b-values up to 2500 s/mm(2), and 2 signal averages from 5 healthy volunteers and generated DKI metrics, i.e., mean, axial, and radial kurtosis (MK, K∥, and K⊥) maps, from various combinations of the datasets. These maps were estimated by using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) with those from the full datasets. RESULTS: The MK and K⊥ maps generated from the datasets including only the b-value of 2500 s/mm(2) showed excellent agreement (ICC, 0.96 to 0.99). Under the same acquisition time and diffusion directions, agreement was better of MK, K∥, and K⊥ maps obtained with 3 b-values (0, 1000, and 2500 s/mm(2)) and 4 signal averages than maps obtained with any other combination of numbers of b-value and varied NSA. Good agreement (ICC > 0.6) required at least 20 diffusion directions in all the metrics. CONCLUSION: MK and K⊥ maps with ICC greater than 0.95 can be obtained at 1.5T within 10 min (b-value = 0, 1000, and 2500 s/mm(2); 20 diffusion directions; 4 signal averages; slice thickness, 6 mm with no interslice gap; number of slices, 12).

Differentiation among parkinsonisms using quantitative diffusion kurtosis imaging.

Differential diagnoses among Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), and progressive supranuclear palsy syndrome (PSPS) are often difficult. Hence, we investigated whether diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI) could detect pathological changes that occur in these disorders and be used to differentiate between such patients. Fourteen patients (five with PD, four MSA, and five PSPS) and six healthy controls were examined using a 1.5-T scanner. Mean kurtosis (MK), fractional anisotropy, and mean diffusivity maps were generated, and these values of the midbrain tegmentum (MBT) and pontine crossing tract (PCT), as well as MBT/PCT ratios, were obtained. We found no significant differences in MBT and PCT values on DKI maps among the groups. In contrast, MBT/PCT ratios from MK maps were significantly increased in the MSA group and decreased in the PSPS group compared with the other groups. MBT/PCT ratios from mean diffusivity maps showed a significant increase in the PSPS group. Therefore, quantitative DKI analyses, particularly the MBT/PCT ratio from MK maps, can differentiate patients with parkinsonisms.

Detection of early changes in the parahippocampal and posterior cingulum bundles during mild cognitive impairment by using high-resolution multi-parametric diffusion tensor imaging.

We aimed to determine alterations occurring in the parahippocampal cingulum bundle (PhC) and posterior cingulum bundle (PoC) in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) through analysis of high-resolution multi-parametric diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Participants comprised 41 patients with MCI (21 AD converters [MCI-C] and 20 non-converters [MCI-NC]), 20 patients with Alzheimer׳s disease (AD), and 26 healthy elderly subjects who underwent prospective examination with high-resolution DTI. An atlas-based regions-of-interest (ROIs) method calculated fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (DA), and radial diffusivity (DR) in the PhC and PoC. For the PhC, FA values showed significant decreases, and MD and DR values showed significantly increases, in the MCI-C and AD groups compared with the healthy controls, although the MCI-C and MCI-NC groups did not differ significantly in these metrics. Conversely, none of the diffusion metrics for the PoC showed a significant difference among the MCI groups and the control groups, although there were significant differences between the AD group and control groups. High-resolution multi-parametric DTI analysis was able to detect substantial changes in diffusion anisotropy and diffusivity in the PhC of patients with MCI who were destined to convert to AD.

Assessment of sensations experienced by subjects during MR imaging examination at 7T.

PURPOSE: We investigated sensations experienced by a large number of subjects during magnetic resonance (MR) imaging examinations using a 7-tesla scanner and slow table-feed speed. METHODS: After examinations at 7T, 504 of 508 consecutive subjects completed questionnaires using an 11-point scale to rate 14 potential sensations and symptoms during table movement and stationary positioning of the table. We compared scores among the sensations and between table conditions and the mean values of the scores with those reported in previous studies and examined correlations between the scores and subject characteristics. RESULTS: Vertigo and feelings of curving or leaning in the right or left direction during table movement were experienced frequently and markedly compared to other sensations and sensations experienced when the table was stationary (P < 0.01) and were correlated with subject age and examination time (P < 0.05). However, moderate to severe (scores of 5 to 10) vertigo and a curving/leaning feeling during table movement were noted in only 10.5% (vertigo) and 10.9% (curving/leaning) of subjects, and the mean vertigo score, 1.26, appeared to be substantially lower than that reported in a previous study. Reports of a metallic taste, nausea, and light flashes were significantly rarer and weaker than other sensations (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Vertigo and feelings of curving during table movement were the most frequent sensations reported during MR imaging examination at 7T. However, the occurrence and severity were low and mild, presumably because of the slow table-feed speed, which suggests that most patients and volunteers found discomfort at 7T acceptable.

Susceptibility-Weighted Phase Imaging and Oxygen Extraction Fraction Measurement during Sedation and Sedation Recovery using 7T MRI.

BACKGROUND & PURPOSE: In this work, we demonstrate oxygen extraction fraction (OEF) measurement using 7T MRI with susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI), in sedated and nonsedated adults. METHODS: Ten healthy subjects (30.3 ± 4.5 years, 9 men, 1 woman) formed control (n = 5) and sedation groups (n = 5). Midazolam and propofol injection was administered to the same sedation group subjects during 2 different scanning sessions. Two-dimensional SPGR imaging was performed before, during, and twice after (propofol, +10, +30 minutes; midazolam, +10, +40 minutes) conscious sedation. The equivalent procedure was performed with the control group without sedation. After SWI analysis, change in OEF between scans was quantified, and parcelated ΔOEF maps were generated with 77 gray matter (GM)-containing volumes-of-interest (VOIs). RESULTS: Significant decreases in OEF were shown in 14 GM VOIs during sedation relative to the control group, most notably during midazolam sedation (P < .05). In contrast, no significant decrease was observed after 10 minutes and in only 4 VOIs after 40 minutes recovery. CONCLUSION: Significant change in ΔOEF during conscious sedation using midazolam and propofol could be measured using SWI at 7T in vivo. This may be a potentially useful approach for the noninvasive assessment of OEF in the brain on a clinical basis.

Intensity inhomogeneity correction for magnetic resonance imaging of human brain at 7T.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the performance and efficacy for intensity inhomogeneity correction of various sequences of the human brain in 7T MRI using the extended version of the unified segmentation algorithm. MATERIALS: Ten healthy volunteers were scanned with four different sequences (2D spin echo [SE], 3D fast SE, 2D fast spoiled gradient echo, and 3D time-of-flight) by using a 7T MRI system. Intensity inhomogeneity correction was performed using the "New Segment" module in SPM8 with four different values (120, 90, 60, and 30 mm) of full width at half maximum (FWHM) in Gaussian smoothness. The uniformity in signals in the entire white matter was evaluated using the coefficient of variation (CV); mean signal intensities between the subcortical and deep white matter were compared, and contrast between subcortical white matter and gray matter was measured. The length of the lenticulostriate (LSA) was measured on maximum intensity projection (MIP) images in the original and corrected images. RESULTS: In all sequences, the CV decreased as the FWHM value decreased. The differences of mean signal intensities between subcortical and deep white matter also decreased with smaller FWHM values. The contrast between white and gray matter was maintained at all FWHM values. LSA length was significantly greater in corrected MIP than in the original MIP images. CONCLUSIONS: Intensity inhomogeneity in 7T MRI can be successfully corrected using SPM8 for various scan sequences.

Assessment of the accuracy of a Bayesian estimation algorithm for perfusion CT by using a digital phantom.

INTRODUCTION: A new deconvolution algorithm, the Bayesian estimation algorithm, was reported to improve the precision of parametric maps created using perfusion computed tomography. However, it remains unclear whether quantitative values generated by this method are more accurate than those generated using optimized deconvolution algorithms of other software packages. Hence, we compared the accuracy of the Bayesian and deconvolution algorithms by using a digital phantom. METHODS: The digital phantom data, in which concentration-time curves reflecting various known values for cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), mean transit time (MTT), and tracer delays were embedded, were analyzed using the Bayesian estimation algorithm as well as delay-insensitive singular value decomposition (SVD) algorithms of two software packages that were the best benchmarks in a previous cross-validation study. Correlation and agreement of quantitative values of these algorithms with true values were examined. RESULTS: CBF, CBV, and MTT values estimated by all the algorithms showed strong correlations with the true values (r = 0.91-0.92, 0.97-0.99, and 0.91-0.96, respectively). In addition, the values generated by the Bayesian estimation algorithm for all of these parameters showed good agreement with the true values [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.90, 0.99, and 0.96, respectively], while MTT values from the SVD algorithms were suboptimal (ICC = 0.81-0.82). CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative analysis using a digital phantom revealed that the Bayesian estimation algorithm yielded CBF, CBV, and MTT maps strongly correlated with the true values and MTT maps with better agreement than those produced by delay-insensitive SVD algorithms.

The neural correlates of velocity processing during the observation of a biological effector in the parietal and premotor cortex.

While there have been several studies investigating the neural correlates of action observation associated with hand grasping movements, comparatively little is known about the neural bases of observation of reaching movements. In two experiments, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we defined the cortical areas encoding reaching movements and assessed their sensitivity to biological motion and to movement velocity. In the first experiment, participants observed video-clips showing either a biological effector (an arm) or a non-biological object (rolling cylinder) reaching toward a target with a biological and a non-biological motion, respectively. In the second experiment, participants observed video-clips showing either a biological effector (an arm) or a non-biological object (an arrow) reaching toward a target with the same biological motion profiles. The results of the two experiments revealed activation of superior parietal and dorsal premotor sites during observation of the biological motion only, independent of whether it was performed by a biological effector (reaching arm) or a non-biological object (reaching arrow). These areas were not activated when participants observed the non-biological movement (rolling cylinder). To assess the responsiveness of parietal and frontal sites to movement velocity, the fMRI repetition-suppression (RS) technique was used, in which movement was shown with same or different velocities between consecutive videos, and observation of identical stimuli was contrasted with observation of different stimuli. Regions of interest were defined in the parietal and frontal cortices, and their response to stimulus repetition was analyzed (same vs. different velocities). The results showed an RS effect for velocity only during the observation of movements performed by the biological effector and not by the non-biological object. These data indicate that dorsal premotor and superior parietal areas represent a neural substrate involved in the encoding of reaching movements and that their responsiveness to movement velocity of a biological effector could be instrumental to the discrimination of movements performed by others.

Penumbral imaging by using perfusion computed tomography and perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging: current concepts.

Perfusion computed tomography and perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging are used to evaluate the extent of the area with ischemic penumbra; however, different parameters, algorithms, and software packages show significant discrepancies in the size of perfusion abnormalities, which should be minimized. Recently, cross-validation studies were performed using digital phantoms and have elucidated the precision and reliability of various penumbral imaging techniques. These research initiatives can promote further multicenter trials on recanalization therapies by providing accurate inclusion/exclusion criteria for appropriate patient selection.

Empathizing with a dissimilar other: the role of self-other distinction in sympathetic responding.

Can we empathize effectively with someone who has a different sensitivity to physical events from ours? Or, are we susceptible to an egocentric bias in overprojection, which may lead us to under- or overreact in such cases? In this study, participants with normal visual and auditory capacity observed a video clip in which a sighted or blind target was exposed to a strong flash or high-frequency sound, while their physiological arousals during the observation were recorded. On average, participants displayed a differential arousal pattern to the aversive stimuli, according to the target's ability to perceive them. Degrees of arousal control were also correlated with dispositional differences in empathy. Participants who scored higher on the Empathic Concern subscale of Davis's Interpersonal Reactivity Index were better at controlling arousals in accordance with the Target × Stimulus interaction. The authors' findings have important implications for helping disabled people while respecting their inherent dignity and individual autonomy.

Shared neural correlates for language and tool use in Broca's area.

Functional MRI was used to test predictions from a theory of the origin of human language. The gradual theory suggests that human language and tool-use skills have a similar hierarchical structure, and proposes that tool-manipulation skills are related to the origin and evolution of human language. Our results show an overlap of brain activity for perceiving language and using tools in Broca's area. The location of this overlap suggests that language and tool use share computational principles for processing complex hierarchical structures common to these two abilities. The involvement of monkeys' homologous region during tool use suggests that neural processes for computation of complex hierarchical structures exist in primates without language, and could have been exapted to support human grammatical ability.