Operando Thin-Layer ATR-FTIR Spectroelectrochemical Radial Flow Cell with Tilt Correction and Borehole Electrode.

A novel spectroelectrochemical ATR-FTIR thin-film cell was designed and applied to elucidate the intermediates during electrocatalytic alcohol oxidation. In the novel cell design, the working electrode is positioned coplanar above the internal reflection element (IRE) to ensure uniform electrolyte film thickness at reaction conditions. The depletion of the reactant (i.e., ethanol or ethylene glycol in the case of electrocatalytic alcohol oxidation) is decreased by a specifically designed flow-through glassy carbon borehole electrode embedded in PEEK. The electrolyte can be pumped through the disk-shaped gap between the ring working electrode and the IRE into the borehole via an external peristaltic pump. To ensure a radially uniform electrolyte flow, the working electrode and the internal reflection element need to be aligned in parallel at a well-controlled distance, which was achieved by a three-microelectrode-assisted tilt correction. Tilt correction of this four-electrode ensemble and the IRE was performed by three step-motor-driven micrometer screws that allow adjustment of the electrode orientation. The effect of electrolyte pumping through the borehole electrode was analyzed by performing anodic ethanol oxidation using nickel boride as electrocatalyst. The applicability, reliability, and functionality of the cell was further assessed by oxidizing ethylene glycol and determining the reaction products as a function of the electrolyte flow rate. It is found to be essential to induce forced electrolyte convection into the thin electrolyte layer to achieve well-defined steady-state conditions, as mass transport by diffusion is by far insufficient, resulting in reactant depletion, product accumulation, and local pH changes.

Spectroelectrochemical studies on the effect of cations in the alkaline glycerol oxidation reaction over carbon nanotube-supported Pd nanoparticles.

The effects of the alkali cations Na+ and K+ were investigated in the alkaline electrochemical oxidation of glycerol over Pd nanoparticles (NPs) deposited on functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The electrocatalytic activity was assessed by cyclic voltammetry revealing a lower overpotential of glycerol oxidation for nitrogen-functionalized Pd/NCNTs compared with oxygen-functionalized Pd/OCNTs. Whereas significantly lower current densities were observed for Pd/OCNT in NaOH than in KOH in agreement with stronger non-covalent interactions on the Pd surface, Pd/NCNT achieved an approximately three-times higher current density in NaOH than in KOH. In situ electrochemistry/IR spectroscopy was applied to unravel the product distribution as a function of the applied potential in NaOH and KOH. The IR spectra exhibited strongly changing band patterns upon varying the potential between 0.77 and 1.17 V vs RHE: at low potentials oxidized C3 species such as mesoxalate and tartronate were formed predominantly, and with increasing potentials C2 and C1 species originating from C-C bond cleavage were identified. The tendency to produce carbonate was found to be less pronounced in KOH. The less favored formation of highly oxidized C3 species and of carbonate is deduced to be the origin of the lower current densities in the cyclic voltammograms (CVs) for Pd/NCNT in KOH. The enhanced current densities in NaOH are rationalized by the presence of Na+ ions bound to the basic nitrogen species in the NCNT support. Adsorbed Na+ ions can form complexes with the organic molecules, presumably enhanced by the chelate effect. In this way, the organic molecules are assumed to be bound more tightly to the NCNT support in close proximity to the Pd NPs facilitating their oxidation.

Electrocatalytic Oxidation of 5-(Hydroxymethyl)furfural Using High-Surface-Area Nickel Boride.

The electrochemical oxidation of the biorefinery product 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF) to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), an important platform chemical for the polymer industry, is receiving increasing interest. FDCA-based polymers such as polyethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate (PEF) are sustainable candidates for replacing polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Herein, we report the highly efficient electrocatalytic oxidation of HMF to FDCA, using Ni foam modified with high-surface-area nickel boride (Nix B) as the electrode. Constant potential electrolysis in combination with HPLC revealed a high faradaic efficiency of close to 100 % towards the production of FDCA with a yield of 98.5 %. Operando electrochemistry coupled to ATR-IR spectroscopy indicated that HMF is oxidized preferentially via 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxylic acid rather than via 2,5-diformylfuran, which is in agreement with HPLC results. This study not only reports a low-cost active electrocatalyst material for the electrochemical oxidation of HMF to FDCA, but additionally provides insight into the reaction pathway.

Absence of diffuse double layer effect on the vibrational properties and oxidation of chemisorbed carbon monoxide on a Pt(111) electrode.

In this work we investigate the effects of the diffuse double layer thickness on the electrochemical Stark tuning and oxidation of carbon monoxide at Pt(111) surfaces in perchloric acid solution. The diffuse double layer thickness was modified by changing the concentration (ionic strength) of the supporting electrolyte. The Stark tuning slope of the adsorbed CO was evaluated with Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy, and the CO oxidation was monitored with cyclic voltammetry. The results show that both electrochemical Stark tuning and oxidation are independent of the HClO4 concentration of the supporting electrolyte, revealing the absence of diffuse layer effects on the aqueous Pt(111)/CO system. By comparison to previously reported theoretical calculations, we attribute this insensitivity to the special double layer structure of Pt(111)/CO, in which the potential drop occurs primarily between the terminating oxygen of the adsorbed CO adlayer and first water layer of the electrolyte, making the properties of adsorbed CO nearly independent of the ionic strength of the electrolyte.

Micrometer-Precise Determination of the Thin Electrolyte Layer of a Spectroelectrochemical Cell by Microelectrode Approach Curves.

A spectroelectrochemical cell is presented that allows investigations of electrochemical reactions by means of attenuated total reflection infrared (ATR-IR) spectroscopy. The electrode holder for the working (WE), counter and reference electrode as mounted in the IR spectrometer cause the formation of a thin electrolyte layer between the internal reflection element (IRE) and the surface of the WE. The thickness of this thin electrolyte layer (dTL) was estimated by performing a scanning electrochemical microscopy-(SECM) like approach of a Pt microelectrode (ME), which was leveled with the WE toward the IRE surface. The precise lowering of the ME/WE plane toward the IRE was enabled by a micrometer screw. The approach curve was recorded in negative feedback mode of SECM and revealed the contact point of the ME and WE on the IRE, which was used as reference point to perform the electro-oxidation of ethanol over a drop-casted Pd/NCNT catalyst on the WE at different thin-layer thicknesses by cyclic voltammetry. The reaction products were detected in the liquid electrolyte by IR spectroscopy, and the effect of variations in dTL on the current densities and IR spectra were analyzed and discussed. The obtained data identify dTL as an important variable in thin-layer experiments with electrochemical reactions and FTIR readout.